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MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 



OF THE 



ENGLISH NATION, 



FROM 



THE INVASION OF JULIUS CESAR TO THE 
PRESENT TIME. 



BY JOHN BKOOKES. 






LONDON : 
JAMES BLACKWOOD, PATERNOSTER ROW. 

[The right of Translation is reserved. .] 






i 

i 

J 



— . — .*. — 

TO THE 

REV. H. R. WILKINS, B.A., 

Wxm of d antsfitlb, 

THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED 

BY 

THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE 



The object of this work is to give an idea of the 
manners, customs, and curious particulars of our 
forefathers, which to most persons are the most 
interesting part of our history. To obtain any 
thing like a correct idea thereof, it is necessary 
to consult not only history, but also laws, poems, 
and biographies. For this few have opportunity 
or inclination. In this work I have endeavoured 
to supply what I have frequently found to be a 
desideratum ; and I believe it contains a con- 
nected narrative of events not to be found in any 
other volume. I have made no statement with- 
out the most patient research. 

J. B. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

CHAPTER I. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the Ancient Britons; from the 

earliest times to the arrival of the Saxons, a.d. 450 ... 9 

CHAPTER IT. 

Manners and Customs, &c M of the Saxons and Danes; from the 
year 450 to the Norman Conquest in 1066 30 

CHAPTER III. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the English ; from 1066 to 1216 
—during the reigns of the Conqueror, William II., 
Henry I., Stephen, Henry II., Richard I., and John ... 68 

CHAPTER IV. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the English; from 1216 to 1399 
—during the reigns of Henry III., the three nrsfr Edwards, 
and Richard II 112 

CHAPTER V. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the English; from 1399 to 1485 
— during the reigns of Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI., 
Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard III 150 

CHAPTER VI. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the English ; from 1485 to 
1603— during the reigns of Henry VII., Henry VIII. , 
Edward VI., Mary I., and Elizabeth the Maiden . . . . 183 

CHAPTER VII. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the English ; from 1603 to the 
present time— during the reigns of James I., Charles I., 
the Commonwealth, Charles II., James II., William III., 
and Mary II., Ann, the Your Georges, William IV., and 
Victoria 220 



MAMERS AND CUSTOMS, &o. 



CHAPTER I. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the Ancient Britons, from the earliest 
times to the arrival of the Saxons, a.d. 450. 

Of the ancient Britons we know little or nothing 
before the invasion of that great man — Julius 
Csesar. It is not till then that we have the per- 
sonal observation of known intelligent men. 
Ornaments and weapons have been found from 
time to time in Great Britain, and acknowledged 
as neither of Roman nor Saxon workmanship ; 
hence, with the aid of a little scanty testimony,* 
we may presume that the earliest inhabitants of 
this country had relapsed into barbarism as they 
receded from the civilized south — that in the course 
of their migrations, having lost the art of working 
metals and weaving of cloth, they were clothed in 
skins, decorated with beads and flowers, and armed 
with weapons of bone and flint — and that their 
stained and punctured bodies must have given 
them the appearance of the islanders of the South 
Pacific, as described by Captain Cook. 

For size, stature, and fairness of complexion, 
the ancient Britons were remarkable. The women 

♦Herodotus, Book IV. ; Plutarch in Mario; and "Welsh Triads, 
4 and 5. 



10 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

in particular were very fair — fairer, perhaps, than 
most Englishwomen of the present day, but not 
so delicate. They had blue eyes, which they 
much admired, and long hair, of which they were 
very proud. The last and most earnest request 
of a young warrior who was taken prisoner, and 
condemned to be beheaded, is said to have been, 
that no slave might be permitted to touch his hair, 
and that it might not be stained with his blood.* 

They did what some folk do nowadays — used 
hair-dye. Men of rank amongst the Gauls and 
Britons shaved the chin, but wore immense tangled 
mustaches. Strabo describes those of the in- 
habitants of Cornwall and the Scilly Isles as hang- 
ing down upon their breasts like wings. He says 
the people of the latter place wore long black 
garments like tunics, and carried staves in their 
hands ; so that, when walking, they looked like 
furies in a tragedy, though really a quiet and in- 
offensive people, f The Britons were not only of 
good stature, but they were very strong — they 
excelled in running, swimming, wrestlings — in a 
word, in most kinds of bodily exercises. Their 
faculties were like their bodies — active. When 
Julius Agricola came to Briton, he praised those 
young Britons who studied the Latin language 
and literature, and declared that in genius they 
excelled the youths of Gaul. When Julius Csesar 
landed on our shores — B. c. 55 years — he found 
the inhabitants of Kent the most civilized of all 
the Britons, and differing but little in their man- 
ners from the Gauls. J Strabo says, "The Britons 
in their manners resemble the Gauls ; " and Taci- 
tus, " They are near and like the Gauls/' 

* Adams's New History of Great Britain, p. 31. 

f Lib. III. J De Bell. Gall., Lib. V. v. 14. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 1 1 

The best informed of the ancient Britons were 
acquainted with the arts of spinning, dyeing, and 
weaving wool, &c. The people of Kent practised 
these arts after the Gaulish fashion, and possessed, 
in common with their continental relatives, some 
valuable secrets in them, unknown to other nations. 
Of this fact we have the direct evidence of Dio- 
dorus Siculus, Strabo, and Pliny; the latter of 
whom enumerates several herbs used for this pur- 
pose, and tells us that they dyed purple, scarlet, 
and several other colours, from these alone.* But 
the herb/ which they chiefly used was the glastum, 
or woad, with which they stained their bodies, 
Csesar says, in order to make themselves look 
dreadful in battle, f Isidorus describes the British 
method of tatooing in these words: — " They 
squeeze the juice of certain herbs into figures made 
on their bodies with the points of needles." $ It 
seems to have been done in infancy, as Pliny tells 
us the British wives and nurses did it.|| Their 
clothing varied, from plaids and simple sheepskins, 
&c, to the fur of wolves, cats, and rabbits. " By 
some persons of high rank, the fur or wool was 
worn inside, while the smooth sides of the skins 
were dressed and curiously stained with the juice 
of the woad, a plant greatly prized among the 
ancient Britons on account of a fine blue dye which 
was obtained from it. With this colour it was 
the custom of the ancient Britons to paint not 
only their garments, but also their faces and 
bodies, in stripes and stars, and various other 
figures. The effect of the painting was very 
similar to that of tattooing, which prevails among 

*Hist. Nat., Lib. XVI. c. 18; Lib. XXII. c. 26. 
f De. Bell. Gall., Lib. V. t Orig., Lib. XIX. c 23. 

|] Nat. Hist, Lib. XXIL c. 2. 



12 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

the savages of the South Sea islands ; and, indeed, 
in various other respects there was a great 
similarity, in many of the customs of the original 
inhabitants of Briton, to those of the islanders 
discovered in modern times in the South Atlantic 
regions." * 

The Britons, according to a Celtic custom, flung 
off their garments when fighting ; and hence arose 
the error, that they lived always (i in puris natura- 
libus" We have the testimony of Csesar himself to 
the fact, that even the least civilized went clad in 
skins ; whilst the southern or Belgic Britons were 
like the Gauls, and therefore not only completely 
but splendidly attired, as may be proved from 
various unquestionable authorities. 

Of the several kinds of cloth manufactured in 
Gaul, one, according to Pliny and Diodorus 
Siculus, was composed of fine wool dyed of several 
colours, which, being spun into yarn, was woven 
either in stripes or in chequers, and of this the 
Gauls and Britons made their lighter or summer 
garments. Here we have the undoubted origin of 
the Scotch plaid or tartan, which is called u the 
garb of old Gaul" to this day; and indeed, with 
the exception of the plumed bonnet and the tasselled 
sporran or purse, a Highland chief in his full cos- 
tume, with truis, plaid, dirk, and target, affords as 
good an illustration of the appearance of an ancient 
Briton of distinction as can well be imagined. t 

In speaking of the Belgic Gauls, Diodorus 
says they wore dyed tunics, beflowered with all 
manner of colours. With- these they wore close 
trousers, which they called braccce $ — these trousers, 

* Agnes Strickland— Tales from History, Vol. I., p. 25 and 26. 
t History of British Costume, by Planche, p. 14. 
+ Lib. V. c. 30. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 13 

an* article of clothing by which all barbaric nations 
seem to have been distinguished from the Romans, 
being made by the Gauls and Britons of their 
chequered cloth. Over the tunic both the Gauls 
and the Britons wore the sagum — a short cloak, so 
called by the Eomans from the Celtic word saic, 
which, according to Varro, signified a skin or hide, 
such having been the materials which the inven- 
tion of cloth had superseded. The British sagum 
was of one uniform colour, generally either blue or 
black.* 

The predominating colour in the chequered 
tunic and braccce was red. The hair was turned 
back upon the crown of the head, and fell down in 
long and bushy curls behind.^ If covered at all 
it was by the cappan, or cap — so called from the 
British cab, a hut, which it resembled in its conical 
shape. The houses of the Britons were made with 
wattles stuck in the ground, and fastened together 
at the top. "It is somewhat singular that the 
form of this ancient pointed cap is to this day ex- 
hibited in what the Welsh children call the cappan 
cymicyll) the horn-like cap made of rushes tied at 
top, and twisted* into a band at bottom." % 

The dress of the British women may be ascer- 
tained from Dion Cassius's account of the appear- 
ance of Boadicea, queen of the Iceni. Her hair 
fell down upon her shoulders — she wore a torque 
of gold — a tunic of several colours, all in folds — 
and over the tunic a robe of coarse stuff, fastened 
by a fibula or brooch. The less civilized tribes 

* Diodorus Siculus, Lib. V. c. 33. 

f Ibid., Lib. V. ; and Ceesar De Bell. Gall., Lib. V. 

J Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands: by 
S. R. Meyrick, LL.D. and F.S.A. It is to this learned author we 
are indebted for the first general collection of ancient British 
authorities. 



14 MAHNEES AND CUSTOMS OF 

that inhabited the interior of the country went 
simply clad in skins.* The hide of the brindled ox 
was generally preferred ; but some wore the 
ysgyn, which was the name for the skin of any 
wild beast, but more particularly the bear. Others 
assumed the sheepskin cloak, according as they 
were herdsmen, hunters, or shepherds.t That, in 
the absence of more valuable fastenings, the cloak 
was secured, as amongst the ancient Germans, by a 
thorn, we have tolerable evidence in the fact of 
this primitive brooch being still used in Wales. J 
They had no shoes or boots, but tied a piece of 
the skin of a horse, cow, or other animal, about 
their feet, with the hair outwards. 

About the year 78, Julius Agricola succeeded in 
establishing the Roman dominion, and introducing 
the Roman manners and language ; so that, before 
the end of the first century, the ancient British 
habit began to be thought little of by the chiefs, 
and regarded as a badge of barbarism. Tacitus 
says, cc The sons of the British chieftains began to 
affect our dress/' || " The braccce were abandoned 
by the southern and eastern Britons, and the 
Roman tunic, reaching to the knee, with the cloak 
or mantle, still however called the sagum, became 
the general habit of the better classes." § The 
change in women's garb was very little, as it had 
originally been similar to that of the Roman 
women. One of their garments was sometimes 
confined by a girdle, and was called in British gicn, 
the gaunacum of Varro, and the origin of our word 
gown.^f Both sexes cut and dressed their hair 
after the Roman fashion. 

* De Bell. Gall., Lib. V. c. 10. f Meyrick- Orig. Inhab. 

I History of British Costume, by Planche, p. 20. 
II In Vit. Agric. § Planche— Hist, of Brit. Costume, p. 23. 

% Meyrick— Orig. Inhab. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 15 

The ornaments of the Britons, like those of 
the Gauls, consisted of rings, bracelets, armlets, a 
collar or necklace of twisted wires of gold or silver, 
called torch or dorch in British, and peculiarly a 
symbol of rank and command. * So fond were 
they of such ornaments as torques, that those who 
could not afford to get them made of the precious 
metals wore them of iron, of which they were not 
a little proud. We learn from Pliny that the ring 
was worn on the middle finger, f 

An extremely curious ornament, or piece of 
armour, was found at Mold in Flintshire, and is 
now in the British Museum. It has been called a 
breastplate or gorget, and, although exceedingly 
mutilated, its form certainly leads to that conclu- 
sion. It is of pure gold, three feet seven inches 
in length, and its width in front, where it appears 
to have been hollow r ed out to receive the neck, 
about eight inches. It is embossed with a figured 
pattern in various degrees of relief. An elaborate 
account may be found in the Arch^eologia, vol. 
xxvi., p. 22. $ Necklaces, armlets, and other 
ornaments of bone or ivory, and of a substance 
known by the name of Kimmeridge coal, are often 
discovered in the early British barrows. Some 
found in Derbyshire in 1846, have been engraved 
by the British Archaeological Society in ]S o. 7 of 
their journal. In the armoury at Goodrich court, 
is a most interesting relic of the early period under 
consideration. It is the metal coating of a shield, 
such as the Britons fabricated after they had been 
induced to imitate the Roman fashions. It ap- 
pears to have been gilt, a practice continued for a 

* Blanche" — History of British Costume, p. 16. 

f Hist. Nat., Lib. XXXIII. c. 6. 

% Planche — Hist, of Brit. Costume, p. 17. 



16 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

long time by the descendants of the Britons, and 
is adorned on the umbo or boss with the common 
red cornelian of the country. This unique speci- 
men was found, with several broken swords and 
spear-heads of bronze, in the bed of the river 
Witham, in Lincolnshire.* 

The habitations of the ancient Britons were 
little better than thickets, dens, and caves. Their 
towns consisted of wicker huts, placed at short 
distances from each other in a tract of woody land, 
and surrounded by a trench, to secure them from 
their enemies. Their winter lodgings, and places 
of retreat in time of w r ar, being dug deep in the 
ground and covered with earth, were rendered by 
art secure and warm. Some of these subter- 
raneous houses are still to be seen in Cornwall. 
They next made themselves wooden houses, 
w^hich were not square but round, with high 
tapering roofs, at the top of which were apertures 
for the admission of light, and emission of smoke. 
In short, their houses in shape were very much 
like sugar-loaves, the holes at the tops serving 
for windows as well as chimneys. 

The most admired and popular virtue of the 
ancient Britons w r as valour. The older they grew 
the more sensible they became that every thing in 
this life depended on their courage. The praises of 
the bards — the smiles of the fair sex — the favour of 
the great and rich — the applauses of the people 
— and even happiness after death, were only to be 
obtained by brave, daring, and noble exploits in 

* Planche" — History of British Costume. Much that we have 
said on costume and ornaments is taken from this excellent work. 
Should the reader wish to know more about the costume of this 
period, he is referred to " Selections of the Ancient Costume of 
Great Britain and Ireland. By C. H. Smith, 1 vol. fol. London, 
1814;" and to "Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British 
Islands. By S. R. Meyrick, LL.D., &c, 1 vol. fol. London, 1821." 



THE EKGLISH NATION. 17 

war. Each young Briton looked forward to the 
time when he could say, " Mine arm rescued the 
feeble ; the haughty found my rage was fire. For 
this my fathers shall meet me at the gates of the 
airy halls, tall, with robes of light, with mildly 
kindled eyes." * 

War being their favourite profession, they had 
many curious customs in the prosecution of it. 
When an unfortunate chieftain begged the protec- 
tion and assistance of another, he went to the 
place where the chieftain lived, with a bloody 
shield in one hand, and a broken spear in the 
other. The shield was to intimate the death of 
his friends, and the broken spear to represent his 
own incapacity to revenge it. When one chief- 
tain entered the territories of another on a friendly 
visit, he and his followers carried their spears 
inverted, with the points behind them ; but when 
they came with an hostile intention, they carried 
them with the points before. An invading army 
never neglected to draw blood from the first 
animal they met on the enemy's ground, and to 
sprinkle it upon their colours. When two British 
chiefs or kings made peace, or entered into an 
alliance, they generally confirmed the agreement 
by feasting together — by exchanging arms — and 
sometimes by drinking a few drops of each other's 
blood.f 

Their armouries were furnished with lances, 
helmets, coats of mail, shields, daggers, swords, 
battle-axes, bows and arrows, and chariots — some 
of which are preserved in the armoury at Good- 
rich Court, Herefordshire. Several dagger-blades 

♦Quoted by Adairs in his "K"ew Historv of Great Britain," 
p. 26. 
t Adams. 



18 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

of bronze, of a very eastern form, have been recently- 
discovered. In number seven of the Journal of the 
British Archaeological Association, p. 235, there 
is an engraving of one found in a tumulus, near 
Church Sterndale, Derbyshire, in 1846. Another 
very beautiful specimen, with a wooden sheath 
lined with cloth, is engraved in Mr. Fairholt's 
u Costume in England," p. 8. The flat circular 
shields, which, like their quivers, their boats, and 
their idols, were of wicker, were soon either imi- 
tated in bronze, or covered with a thin plate of 
it; and then, from their sonorous quality, were 
called tarians or dashers. The metal castings of 
two of these shields are preserved in a perfect state 
in the Meyrick collection. They are rather more 
than two feet in diameter — are ornamented with 
concentric circles, between which are raised as 
many little knobs as the space will admit — and 
have each a hollow boss in the centre to admit the 
hand, as they were held at arm's length in action. 
A smaller one, rather differing in pattern, was 
found in the river Isis in 1836, and is now in the 
British Museum.* The chariot, helmet, and coat 
of mail, were only used by the chieftains. Common 
soldiers always fought on foot, Their chariots 
were drawn by two horses — carried one or two 
men— and had scythes fastened to the axle trees. 

One of the most shining virtues of the ancient 
Britons was their hospitality. Upon seeing a 
stranger near their huts, they spoke kindly to him, 
and gave him a pressing invitation to spend some 
time with them. If he accepted the invitation, 
they gave him some water with which to wash his 
feet. If he took the water and used it, and at 
the same time delivered his arms to the master of 

* Hist, of British Costume, by Planche. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 19 

the house, it was taken as a hint that he would 
spend at least one night with them. Then they 
became merry, a meal was prepared, the harp was 
brought out, and they passed the time merrily. 

The drinks of the Britons were water, the milk 
of animals, mead, ale, and beer. Before the Romans 
taught them farming, the strongest drink they 
had was mead, honey diluted with water, and fer- 
mented. 

They had also wine, and their feasts were neither 
few nor far between. Every time they had an 
opportunity, they indulged in feasting. There 
was no public assembly, no marriage, no birthday, 
no treaty of peace or alliance, not even a funeral, 
without a great and jolly feast* Certainly there 
is nothing like a good dinner to make a man for- 
get a wrong done to him, and become cheerful and 
charitable. " The way to a man's heart is through 
his stomach," says a proverb, and the Britons 
appear to have known this. Those who made the 
most and the greatest feasts were the most popular. 

Many of their feasts lasted for a week, some- 
times more. The guests seldom departed till they 
had consumed all the provisions, and drunk all the 
liquor. 

They had only two meals a day, breakfast and 
supper. At supper they ate and drank with great 
freedom, often to excess. They sat in a circle 
upon the ground, their only seats, for a long time, 
being grass, hay, or the skins of some animals. 

The meat that was before them they took up 
with their hands, and tearing some off with their 
teeth, ate it as well as they could. It sometimes 
happened that a piece of meat could not easily be 
separated, in such cases a knife was used, which 



20 MANNEHS AND CUSTOMS OF 

lay in a particular place for the use of the whole 
company. 

For some time many of the Britons lived on the 
spontaneous productions of the earth. When Julius 
Cassar invaded this country, however, they had 
great herds of cattle and flocks of sheep, the flesh 
and milk of which yielded them a variety of sub- 
stantial dishes. They used little bread, but ate 
much meat. They had also venison, game, and 
poultry, though, through some superstitious fancy, 
they would not for many ages eat either hares, 
hens, geese, or fish. The decline of the Drui- 
dical religion removed many of the restraints 
which the prejudices of national faith imposed 
upon their palates. 

Before the Britons became so effeminate through 
Roman luxury, they did their utmost to make 
their children hardy, strong, and brave. Even in 
winter-time they took their little children to some 
stream or lake, and plunged them right into it, with 
a view to harden their bodies. Women nursed 
their own children without having the least idea 
that it was possible for any one else to do it for 
them. Parents were not severe, but allowed their 
sons to climb, wrestle, jump, swim, and run. 

Much exercise, liberty, and plain diet, were pro- 
bably the cause of their having such strength of 
body and boldness of spirit. They were re- 
nowned for the warmth of their natural affections, 
their duty towards their parents and masters, and 
their attachment to their family and friends. The 
members of a clan, or family, were animated with 
one spirit ; and whoever did an injury or offered an 
insult to one of them, drew upon himself the 
resentment of the whole. 

Their religion was under the direction of priests, 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 21 

who were called Druids, from the Greek word 
Agus, an oak — because they worshipped their gods 
in groves of oak. Besides being the priests, they 
were the physicians, judges, and teachers of the 
Britons — a tremendous power to be lodged in the 
hands of any peculiar class. The severest penalty 
inflicted by the Druids, was the interdiction of the 
sacrifice to those who had offended them. Woe 
unto the unhappy wretch on whom the awful sen- 
tence fell ! He ceased to be considered as a human 
being. Like the beast of the forest, his life was 
at the mercy of any one who chose to take it. He 
lost all his civil rights — could neither inherit land, 
nor sue for the recovery of debts — and even his 
nearest relations fled from him in horror and 
aversion, as from the pest. Unlike the Britons 
generally, the Druids wore long beards and clothes.* 
They enjoyed great honours and privileges, and 
lived in caves or grottoes, where they practised 
their superstitious rites. Of their temples there 
are still some remains. The most remarkable in 
England are those at Stonehenge, and at Abury, 
in Wiltshire. The remains at Stonehenge consist 
of 139 enormous stones, ranged in a circle ; those 
at Abury cover a space of twenty-eight acres of 
land. But the largest of all the remains of the 
Druid temples is situated at Carnac, in the de- 
partment of Morbihan, in France. It is formed 

* The Priesthood was divided into three orders : the "Druids, the 
Bards, and the Ovates. The dress of the druidical or sacerdotal 
order was white, the emblem of holiness and peculiarity of truth. 
The bards wore a one- coloured robe of sky-blue, being emblematical 
of peace. The ovate or ovydd, professing astronomy, medicine, &c, 
wore green, the symbol of learning, as being the colour of the 
clothing of nature. The disciples of the orders wore variegated 
dresses of the three colours, blue, green, and white, or blue, green 
and red. A disciple, about to be admitted a graduate, is called by 
the bards, " a dog with spots of red, blue, and green." — See Meyrick 
and Planches works. 



22 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

of 400 stones, varying from five to twenty-seven 
feet in length, and ranged in eleven concentric 
lines. 

" Among the other remains of the works of the 
Druids, are the great moving masses, principally 
found in Cornwall, and called loggan-stones, or 
rockinor-stones. These consist of a large block of 
stone, so finely balanced on one small point, that 
though it stands securely, which, in fact, it has 
done for many hundreds of years, yet it can be 
moved, and made to rock by a very small force. 
These loggan-stones were used by the Druids for 
the purpose of deceiving the heathen Britons. 
They pretended that, if the stone moved, the gods 
were kindly disposed, and if it stood still, that 
they were angry with the people. But these 
crafty Druids were provided with an instrument 
which, by placing it under the point of the stone, 
enabled them to move it, or not, at pleasure/'* 

The Druids sometimes sacrificed human beings — 
hundreds of persons, enclosed in large wicker 
frames, were burnt on particular occasions as 
offerings to their gods. They believed in the im- 
mortality of the soul — in transmigration of souls — 
in a heaven, and in a hell. Heaven they called 
Flathinnisj which they supposed was a most beauti- 
ful place, and only to be entered by the brave, the 
virtuous, and the good. Hell they thought was a 
dreary, gloomy, frozen place. They held the oak 
and mistletoe in high veneration — knew something 
of botany, sculpture, painting, glass-making, me- 
chanics, and medicine — had an admirable taste for 
poetry, and a fondness for music — and excluded 
none from their order, to w T hich merit and long 
study gave access. 

* Agnes Strickland— Tales from History, Yol. I., pp. 8 and 9. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 23 

Dr. Brewer says, that it was customary for the 
Gauls to send their sons into Britain to be in- 
structed by the Druids in law, astronomy, and 
poetry. The same writer — in his English History, 
p. 3 — says, that the Druids were very celebrated 
for their wisdom. We are sorry to see such an 
assertion. We grant that they were better in- 
formed, and that they possessed more influence 
than any other class of men in Britain ; but they 
were certainly not celebrated for their wisdom, 
unless burning their fellow countrymen and deceiv- 
ing the people with the loggan-stones prove it. 
Dr. Brewer should have known that what we know 
is knowledge, and that the right use of knowledge 
is wisdom — that of knowledge the Druids possessed 
more than any other class of Britons, but that of 
wisdom they had precious little. 

The teachings of Christ were probably intro- 
duced into Britain about the end of the first cen- 
tury. " We know that Caractacus, the old British 
king, was a fellow-prisoner at Rome with St. Paul, 
and that he was converted to Christianity; and 
upon the testimony of the British Triads, or 
ancient records, his family brought back Christia- 
nity from Rome."* 

Lacius is said to have been the first Christian 
king in Britain — he died A. D. 181. 

With respect to their dead, as far as we can 
ascertain, they sometimes buried them, but the 
south Britons oftener burned them. They went so 
far as to throw on the fire, in which the body was 
burnt, those friends, servants, animals, and things, 
in which the dead person had most delighted, 
and all were reduced to ashes in the same fire ! 
Those who were buried generally had their dogs, 

* Bromby — Antiquity of British Church. 



24 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

swords, bows and arrows, buried with them. 
Their most splendid and important rite of sepul- 
ture was the funeral song. It contained all the 
good qualities the dead person had possessed, and 
was sung by a number of bards to the music of 
their harps when the body was interred. To want 
a funeral song was thought the greatest misfortune 
and disgrace, because they thought without it 
their souls w T ould enjoy neither rest nor happiness 
in the next world. 

The Britons were idolaters, but they were a 
brave and generous people ; and though they were 
few in number when Julius Caesar invaded this 
country with eighty ships full of men, yet he found 
them energetic, determined, and valiant. 

One of the bravest, noblest, and greatest men, 
of whom the Britons had good reason to be proud, 
was Caractacusj king of the Silures, He resisted 
most manfully the invasion of Ostorius, by whom 
he was defeated, and sent with his family to Rome 
as a noble trophy of conquest. Tacitus relates 
that the first remark Caractacus made on. seeing 
Rome, was surprise that those who possessed such 
magnificent palaces at home should envy him a 
poor hovel in Britain. He w T as conducted before 
the emperor, Claudius Caasar. Going up to the 
throne, he said to the emperor — u If I had, 
Caesar ! in prosperity, a prudence equal to my birth 
in fortune, I should have entered this city as a 
friend, and not as a captive ; and probably thou 
wouldst not have disdained the alliance of a man 
descended from illustrious ancestors, who gave laws 
to several nations. My fate this day appears as 
sad for me as it is glorious for thee. I had horses, 
soldiers, arms, and treasures : is it surprising that 
I should regret the loss of them ? If it is thy will 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 25 

to command the universe, is it a reason we should 
voluntarily accept slavery ? Had I yielded sooner, 
thy fortune and my glory would have been less*, 
and oblivion soon have followed my execution. 
If thou sparest my life I shall be an eternal monu- 
ment of thy clemency." His bold manly demea- 
nour so pleased the emperor, that he gave both him 
and his family their liberty. Caractacus was not 
the only brave, noble, and true Briton, whose 
names will ever remain in the brightest pages of 
our history. 

The language spoken by the ancient Britons was 
probably the same as most Welsh people speak 
at the present time. 

The only money possessed by the ancient Britons 
before Caesar's invasion, consisted of copper and 
iron rings. Conobline, father of Caractacus, is 
said to have been the first who struck the British 
coin. After the Romans had settled here, new 
coins were struck by them. 

The commerce of the Britons was not very 
great. Their exports were tin, lead, iron, pearls, 
dogs, horses, cheese, &c. Tin was the principal 
export. They excelled in making baskets, &c, of 
osiers, not only for their own use but for exporta- 
tion. u The ingenuity of the Britons in this spe- 
cies of manufacture was much admired by the 
Romans, who, when they introduced into Italy 
the British bascawd (basket-work), adopted also 
its name, terming it bascauda. The British name 
for a quiver is cawell saethan, i. e., a basket-work 
case for arrows. The ancient British wicker-boat 
called curwgll or coracle, formed of osier twigs, 
covered with hide, is still in use upon the Wye, 
and other rivers both of Wales and Ireland." * 

* Planche-'-p. 9 of Hist, of Brit. Costume. 



25 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

If a farmer's crops were injured by the straying 
stock of his neighbour, he could seize and keep 
one out of every three pigs, sheep, goats, geese, 
and hens, which he found among his corn. 

Thieves, robbers, and murderers, were burnt to 
death. Those who betrayed or deserted the cause 
of their country, were hanged on trees. Cowards, 
sluggards, habitual drunkards, and prostitutes, 
were suffocated in mires and bogs. 

The principal diversion of the Britons was 
hunting; the richest and most powerful of both 
sexes took great delight in it. An old author, in 
speaking of a couple, quaintly says — cc Their course 
in the chase was one, and happy were their words 
in secret." * 

The period of courtship amongst the Britons 
appears to have been very brief, generally only a 
few days. The absolute authority of the father 
deprived the daughter of power to refuse. Tears 
or flight were often her only means of escape. 
The husband was allowed to chastise his wife, or 
require a legal satisfaction for the three following 
crimes — infidelity to his bed — embezzling his 
goods — or abusing his beard ! 

By the ancient Britons' law of succession, a 
man's property at his death was equally divided 
amongst his sons. If any one was favoured, it was 
not the eldest but the youngest son ; for one of 
their laws commanded that, when the brothers had 
divided their father's estate, the youngest should 
have the best house, with all the office-houses, 
the implements of husbandry, his father's kettle, 
his axe for cutting wood, and his knife. " These 
three last things the father cannot give away by 
gift, nor leave by his last will to any but his 

* Quoted by Adams— Chap. VII. 




Hunting. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 27 

youngest son : and If they are pledged they shall 
be redeemed." * 

The horse was originally an inhabitant of 
Briton, and so much did the Romans think of the 
British horses that some were exported to Rome. 
Donkeys were introduced into England by the 
Romans. Of asses ? the Romans and Spaniards 
thought much. The Roman women thought their 
milk, used as a wash, contributed towards white- 
ning their skins. Nero's consort kept a train of 
five hundred milch asses in constant attendance 
upon her, so that her bath might often be replen- 
ished with their milk. It is probable that the 
Romans introduced into England rabbits, phea- 
sants, cuckoos, pigeons, turtles, and peacocks. 
The rabbit was originally a native of Spain. 
Amongst the Romans the peacock was of consi- 
derable repute. 

Those whom we now call Scotchmen were in 
this period called Picts, from the Latin word picti 
— this name was given them from their habit 
of painting their bodies. The Scots originally 
came over from Ireland, and settled on the west- 
ern coast of Scotland. Ireland was at that time 
called Scotia. 

The three plants so highly prized by the Druids 
were samol, which they thought was a remedy for 
all diseases in cattle — vervain, which they said 
was a cure for every disease in man — and mistletoe, 
which they called the " all-healing plant." 

The first name of this country was Albion, so 
called from its white rocks opposite the coast *of 
France, or from Olbion, a word signifying rich or 
happy in regard to its situation and fertility. 
Britannia was the name by which the Greeks and 

* Quoted by Adams. 



28 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Romans knew this country. It was afterwards 
named Britain. Why it was called Britannia, or 
Britain, is now doubtful ; perhaps from pryd and 
cain, two British words signifying beauty and 
white, or from the word bryth, that is, painted or 
stained — the ancient inhabitants using to dye 
their bodies with an herb of that name. 

Whitaker, in his " History of Manchester," con- 
tends that the island derives its name from the 
Celtic root "Brit" which signifies broken or sepa- 
rated, in allusion to the natives being divided into 
so many different tribes or nations. He also ob- 
serves that the word Brit, in the sense of painted, 
is the same as Brick or Brechan, the name which 
the Scotch Highlander still gives to his tartan or 
plaid, and signifying a garment marked with 
divided or variegated colours. Sir W. Betham 
thinks that it is formed from the Celtic Brit 
daoine, that is, painted people. 

Some say that the element tan is the same 
word which we find in the names of many other 
countries, as Afghani-stan, Hindo-stan, Pale-stine, 
&c, and which appears to mean a land or country. 

Bruit was the Celtic for tin, so that Bruit-tan 
might be the derivation, meaning metal or tin 
land, being smoothed down by the Greeks and 
Romans into Britannia, and afterwards by others 
into Britain. This is, we think, the real deriva- 
tion of the word Britain, though we have given 
the opinions of others on this subject. 

The Romans invaded Britain B.C. 55 years, and 
finally left it ajx 448. Whilst the Britons were 
under the protection of the Romans, they advanced 
much in civilization, but lost their warlike spirit — 
hence, to them, civilization was a curse. Being 
unable to repel their enemies, after the Romans 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 29 

quitted this country, they asked the Saxons to 
assist them. The Saxons came — drove back the 
Picts and Scots — and for that service got the 
island of Thanet. The Saxons soon asked for 
more land. The Britons did not grant their re- 
quest, and the result was war, in which the Britons 
were defeated. After a contest for about 150 
years, the Saxons possessed the whole country, 
which by them was divided into seven inde- 
pendent states, called the Saxon Heptarchy. The 
seven Saxon kingdoms were governed by as many 
kings, who were constantly at war w r ith each 
other, until Egbert, king of Wessex, subduing the 
other states, became the first sole monarch of 
England, a.d. 827. 

In the reign of Egbert, the incursions of the 
Danes became frequent in England, and about 
the year 852 they ventured, for the first time, to 
take up their winter-quarters in this country. 
They were a people who originally came from 
Norway and Sweden, and afterwards settled in 
Denmark. They derived their name from Dan, 
w T ho was one of their earliest kings after their 
separation from the parent stock. 

In the year 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, 
invaded England, and obtained a decided victory 
near Hastings. Harold II. was slain by an arrow 
piercing his left eye — thus putting an end to the 
Anglo-Saxon government, which had existed for 
more than 600 years. 

England derives its name from Anglen, a village 
near Sleswick in Denmark, whence great numbers 
ol Saxon invaders came. 



80 MANSERS AND CUSTOMS OF 



CHAPTER II. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the Saxons and Danes, from the 
year 450, to the Norman Conquest in 1066, 

The Anglo-Saxons were a people tall, robust, 
good-looking, and brave. Gregory the Great, 
seeing some English youths exposed for sale in 
the market-place in Rome, was much struck with 
their intelligent looks, their gracefulness, their 
beauty, and their robust bodies. He made some 
inquiries concerning them, and when he found 
that they and their countrymen knew little or 
nothing of the teachings of Christ, he exclaimed : — 
" How lamentable it is that the prince of darkness 
should have such beautiful subjects, and that a 
nation so amiable in their bodies should have none 
of the charms of divine grace in their souls ! Their 
form is truly angelic, and they are fit to be the 
companions of the angels in heaven." In emer- 
gencies they were active — in dangers fearless— 
and they could bear much fatigue. Like the 
ancient Britons, they were hospitable ; and, like 
many of the present day, they were too fond of 
that which, when taken to excess, deprives man 
of his health, money, and happiness — which is 
directly or indirectly the cause of nearly all the 
crime, disease, juvenile depravity, insanity, pauper- 
ism, ungodliness, and impurity in England —which 
costs us annually about £60,000,000. So fond of 
intoxicating drinks and gambling were the Saxons, 
that they often played away their persons and 
liberties. 



THE ENGLISH NATTOtf. 31 

There were no qualities which the Anglo-Saxons 
so much admired as boldness and valour ; hence 
they were anxious to know if their sons would 
possess them. The most common method of 
putting a little boy's courage to trial was, to put 
him on the slanting side of the house and there 
leave him. If the little fellow began to look afraid 
and cry, the family and friends assembled in front 
of the house foretold that he would be a coward ; 
but if he clung boldly to the roof, and appeared 
fearless, they foretold that he would make a brave 
man and a good warrior. 

In size, robustness, and valour, the Danes w r ere 
very much like the Saxons, but they were rather 
more fierce and w 7 arlike. In their manners and 
habits they were barbarous — considered war as 
the only noble pursuit — and were notorious for 
robbing vessels upon the open sea. Having a 
most astonishing spirit of enterprise and adventure, 
and possessing numerous fleets, they rode triumph- 
antly on all the European seas. Wherever they 
w r ent they were much feared. So much terror 
and desolation did the Scandinavians carry to the 
coasts of England, Scotland, France, and other 
countries, that the people of those countries used 
to pray daily that they might be preserved from 
their destructive visits. The Danes were born in 
camps or fleets : the first things they saw were 
fearless feats of arms, battles, slaughter, and blood, 
in which they soon delighted : their childhood and 
youth were spent in boxing, wrestling, fighting, 
running, climbing, &c. ; as soon as they could talk, 
they were taught to sing the brave deeds of their 
forefathers — most of their tales were about fight- 
ing, defeating their enemies, and plundering their 
countries, burning cities, piratical expeditions, and 



32 * MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

the booty and glory obtained thereby. The 
education they received was one calculated to 
harden their souls and bodies — make them robust 
and fearless — anxious to handle arms, and to mix 
with their fathers, brothers, and comrades. One 
of their martial laws was, that a Dane, who wished 
to acquire the character of a brave man, should 
always attack two enemies — stand firm and receive 
the attack of three — retire only one pace from four 
— and flee from no fewer than five.* Such was 
the awe in which the Danes were held by the 
people of this country, that in speaking of them 
they invariably styled them the lorcl-danes. From 
this custom probably the word lar-dane, signifying 
a rich and idle man, had its origin. It is some- 
times to be found in books written as late as the 
reign of Elizabeth, and is still used in some parts 
of England. 

The Anglo-Saxons and Danes were rude and 
uncouth in their address, and haughty in their de- 
portment ; but, bad as their manners were, they ap- 
pear to have been better than those of the Welsh, 
for it was thought necessary to make a law, u that 
none of the courtiers should give the queen a 
blow, or snatch any thing with violence out of her 
hands, under the penalty of forfeiting her majesty's 
protection." f 

The Anglo-Saxons were divided into three 
classes, the noble, the free, and the servile. The 
nobles or thanes were a numerous class, com* 
prehending all the great landholders in England. 
They filled the place of our present peers, some of 
whom are said to be their descendants ; for William 
I. changed the title of thane into that of baron or 

* Quoted by Adams— New Hist, of Great Britain, pp. 70-1. 
f Ibid. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 6 3 

lord, and invested them with some new privileges, 
which may be considered the origin of our House 
of Lords. 

The freemen were called ceorls, and were chiefly 
employed in husbandry. They cultivated the lands, 
w^hich the thanes let to them on long leases, at very 
low rents. If one of this class prospered so well as 
to acquire the property of five hides of land, on 
which there was a church, a kitchen, a bell-house, 
and a great gate, or if he became a priest, he was 
esteemed a thane. The only vocations which 
were thought respectable for this class to follow, 
were farming, commerce, literature, and arms. 
From the word ceorl we have carle or churl) which 
we sometimes apply contemptuously to ill-mannered 
persons — its original meaning was merely a farmer 
or husbandman. 

The servile class, called also villains, thralls, serfs, 
slaves, or villagers, was the most numerous in the 
country, and, being the property of their masters, 
were incapable of holding any property themselves. 
They were of two kinds, household and rustic ; 
both were bought, sold, and transferred like cattle 
with the land. The master's power over his slave, 
however, was not quite unlimited ; for, if he beat 
out his eyes or teeth, the slave might claim hi3 
liberty. If he wounded him, and he died within a 
day after receiving the wound, the master had to 
pay a fine to the king. Rustic slaves were called 
villani or villains, because they lived at the villages 
belonging to their masters, and did the servile 
work on their lands. The word villain) like many 
other words in our language, has undergone a 
change in meaning. 

For a knowledge of the costume of this period, 
we are greatly indebted to the early illuminators, 



34 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

each of whom invariably portrayed every person- 
age dressed according to the fashions of his own 
time. Had these artists indulged their fancies in 
the invention of dresses, instead of faithfully copy- 
ing that which they daily saw, we should have 
known much less than we do on this subject. 

The general civil costume of the Anglo-Saxons, 
from the eighth century to the end of the period 
under consideration, consisted of a linen shirt, a 
linen or woollen tunic, according to the season, 
descending to the knees, and having long close 
sleeves ; and over this was worn a short cloak, like 
the Roman pallium or Gaulish sagum^ fastened 
sometimes on the breast, and sometimes on one or 
both shoulders, with brooches or fibulae. The linen 
or woollen tunic, or blouse, was often fastened with 
a belt round the waist, and was much like the 
present smock-frock. Its Saxon name was roc or 
rooc, and it was either plain or ornamented round 
the collar, waist, and borders, according to the 
rank of the wearer. That of Charlemagne was 
bordered with silk, "Tunicam quae limbo serico 
ambiebatur." * Many people are not aware that 
the smock-frock worn by farmers' assistants and 
others, is a pure piece of Saxon costume ; and it 
ought never to be superseded by the ugly and 
tasteless stiff-cut coats, &c, much in vogue in our 
time. The well-made smock-frocks, reaching to 
the knees, certainly look much better than any 
coats we ever saw the "labouring class" wear. 

Drawers reaching half-way down the thigh, and 
'stockings meeting them, may be seen in most 
Saxon illuminations ; they are alluded to by writers 
under the names of brech and hose. Eginhart in- 
forms us that the femoralia or drawers of Charle- 

* Eginhart — Life of Charlemagae. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 35 

magne were of linen. cc Scin hose and leather hose 
are also mentioned, and may mean a species of 
buskin, or short boot now and then met with, or 
literally leathern stockings. Over these stockings 
they wore bands of cloth, linen, or leather, com- 
mencing at the ankle and terminating a little below 
the knee, either in close rolls, like the haybands of 
a modern ostler, or crossing each other sandal- 
wise, as they are worn to this day by the people 
of the Abruzzi and the Apennines, and in some 
parts of Russia and Spain."* From the ancient 
canons we learn that the monks were commanded 
to wear them of linen, to distinguish them from 
the laity, who wore woollen. In some illumina- 
tions may be seen a kind of half stocking or sock, 
worn over the hose instead of the bandages. Pro- 
bably this was the Saxon socca. At the top it is 
generally bordered, and reminds one of the Scotch 
stocking, which from the red cross-gartering imi- 
tated upon it, is perhaps a relic of the ancient 
Saxon or Danish dress. 

The Saxon shoes are usually painted black, 
with an opening down the instep, and fastened by 
a thong. Labourers are generally represented 
barelegged, but seldom barefooted. 

The garments just mentioned composed the 
dress of all classes of society, from the king to the 
poor man : the same articles of dress appear to 
have been common to Anglo-Saxons of all con- 
ditions. The wealthy were distinguished from the 
poor by the ornaments and richness, not the form, 
of their apparel. On some occasions the rich 
wore the tunic longer and the mantle somewhat 
larger, but it was not often they did so. 

Towards the end of this period the national cos- 

* Planchd's Hist, of Brit. Costume, page 34. 



36 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

tume became more magnificent. In the men the 
taste for finery degenerated into effeminacy. 
Like some lap-dogs, they wore metal collars, and 
not unfrequently precious stones, round their necks. 
Silk, which was known as early as the eighth cen- 
tury, but from its costliness must have been very 
rare, was at this time much worn by rich folk. 
Bede mentions silken palls of exquisite workman- 
ship, and we read that his soul's temple was 
enclosed in silk, as were those of Dunstan and 
other celebrated men. So clever were the Anglo- 
Saxon ladies at weaving and embroidery, &c, 
that on the continent their work went by the 
name of Anglicum opus* A variety of colours 
appears to have been much admired. In the illu- 
minations, red, blue, and green are the most com- 
mon. The hose are generally red or blue. 

The Anglo-Saxon females of all ranks wore long 
loose garments reaching to the ground, distin- 
guished in various documents by the names of the 
tunic, the gunna or gown, the cyrtle or kirtle, 
and the mantle. The British gown was a . short 
tunic with sleeves reaching to the elbows, and 
worn over the long tunic. The Saxon gunna was 
also sometimes short, but there is sufficient 
authority to prove that a similar description of 
vestment was called a kirtle. No short tunics are, 
however, visible in Saxon illuminations, and we 
must presume, therefore, that the gunna or gown 
generally means the long full robe, with loose 
sleeves, worn over the tunic ; and the kirtle an 
inner garment. The sleeves of the tunic, reaching 
in close rolls to the wrist, like those of the men, 
are generally confined there by a bracelet, or ter- 
minate with a fine border, and the mantle hangs 

* Planche— Hist, of Brit. Costume, p. 36. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 37 

down before and behind, covering the whole 
body.* 

The head-dress of all ranks of women was a 
veil, or long piece of linen or silk wrapped round 
the head and neck. In the illustrations this part 
of their dress is exceedingly unbecoming, per- 
haps partly owing to the want of skill in the 
artist. The head-gear was seldom worn except 
when they went from home, as the hair itself was 
cherished and ornamented with as much attention 
as in modern times. In the Anglo-Saxon poem 
of " Judith," the heroine is called " the maid of 
the Creator with twisted locks.'' 

Hose or socca were most probably worn by 
women as well as men, but they are always con- 
cealed by the gown or tunic. Their shoes appear 
similar to those of the men. Gloves were not 
worn by either sex before the eleventh century, 
though doubtless they had substitutes ; sometimes 
the loose sleeves of the gown supplied their place 
by being brought over the hand, and sometimes 
the mantle is made to answer the same purpose. 
Cloth, silk, and linen were of course the principal 
materials of which their dresses were made. 
Very little white is observed in women's costume 
— the prevailing colours with both sexes were red, 
blue, and green. 

The dress of the soldiers was very much like 
that of the civilians. The Saxons were all soldiers, 
as their successors the Danes were all sailors. 
Each man carried a spear or a sword — to go un- 
armed was enjoined in the ancient canons as a 
severe peDance. Hence the addition of a shield ; 
and sometimes, but not invariably, a helmet, was 
only wanting to make a man as ready for the 

* Planche. 



3.8 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

field of battle as for the feast. Coverings for the 
head are very rare in paintings representing peace- 
ful operations ; but in battle we perceive a cap or 
helmet, somewhat conical in shape, and apparently 
made of leather, and sometimes bound and border- 
ed with metal. The Ci leather helme" is often 
mentioned by the Saxon writers ; so is the fellen hcet, 
the felt or woollen hat, which is the same sort of cap 
made of those materials. Their weapons were all 
of iron, and consisted of long broadswords double- 
edged, daggers, javelins, and long spears, some of 
which were barbed, and others broad and leaf- 
shaped ; also axes with long handles, which they 
called bills, and which continued in use almost to 
our time. Their shields were oval and convex, 
the bodies of which were made of leather, and the 
rims as well as the bosses were of iron, either 
painted or gilt. Spurs appear in the Saxon illu- 
minations ; they had no rowels, but a simple point 
like a goad, and were therefore called pryck spurs, 
and the goad itself the spur spectre. They were 
fastened with leathers, nearly as at present.* 

"Long hair was the distinguishing characteristic 
of the Teutonic tribes. It was a mark of the 
highest rank amongst the Franks, none of whom, 
but the first nobility and princes ' of the blood,' 
were permitted to wear it in flowing ringlets, an 
express law commanding the people to cut their 
hair close round the middle of the forehead. The 
beard was also held by them in the greatest reve- 
rence, and to touch it stood in lieu of a solemn oath. 
Amongst the Anglo-Saxons the law made no in- 
vidious distinctions; but the clergy preached for 
centuries against the sinfulness of long hair, which 
seems most perversely to have grown the faster for 

* Planche— Hist, of Brit. Costume, p. 46. 



TIIE ENGLISH NATION". 39 

the prohibition. In the illuminations it appears 
not ungracefully worn, being parted on the fore- 
head, and suffered to fall naturally down the 
shoulders : the beard is ample, and generally 
forked, and the character of the face immediately 
designates the age wherein the early portraits of 
Christ, which have been reverently copied to the 
present day, were originally fabricated." * 

The practice of tattooing or puncturing the skin 
— considered as a badge of courage and nobility 
amongst the savages of the South Pacific — was 
not unknown or unadmired by the Saxons. We 
know not whether it was a national custom 
originally, or adopted in imitation of the Britons ; 
but that they practised it in the eighth century is 
proved by a law having been passed against it in 
785. f Even as late as the Norman conquest -we 
find included in the list of prevailing English 
vices, that of puncturing designs upon the skin ; 
from which it appears that the goddess Fashion 
was too strong for the legislature, as she is now 
too mighty for good taste and common sense. 

The ornaments of the Anglo-Saxons consisted 
of gold and silver chains, crosses, bracelets of 
gold, silver, or ivory, golden and jewelled belts, 
strings of amber and other beads, rings, brooches, 
buckles, &c. The metal articles were sometimes 
beautifully enamelled, A jewel of gold, enamelled 
and circumscribed, u JElfred me haet gewercan," 
Alfred ordered me to be made, was found in the isle 
of Athelney, whither that good king retired on the 
invasion of Godrun. Some suppose it to have 
been the top of a small staff or sceptre. It is now 
in the Ashmolean museum. The ring of King 

♦Planche — pp. 38 and 39 of Brit. Costume, 
t Wilkin's Concilia, Tom. I. 



40 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Athelwulf, Alfred's father, is in the British 
Museum, and has been engraved by Shaw in his 
" Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages." * 

Golden head-bands, half circles of gold, neck- 
bands, and bracelets, are often mentioned in 
Anglo-Saxon wills and inventories. The head- 
band was sometimes worn over the veil or head- 
cloth. Amongst other ornaments we read of ear- 
rings, golden vermiculated necklaces, a neck cross, 
and a golden fly beautifully ornamented with 
precious stories, f Amber beads are often found 
in Saxon tumuli. 

Of the dress of the Danes we know little, 
but that little enables us to ascertain, that 
in many respects it resembled that of the 
Anglo-Saxons. From various passages in the 
Welsh chronicles, and the old Danish ballads, we 
learn that the favourite, if not the general, colour 
of the ancient Danish dress was black. Black, 
amongst the Pagan Danes, had certainly no funeral 
associations connected with it. In representations 
of Saxon burials there is no black to be seen ; and, 
though the Danes' costume was of that colour, yet 
it is well known that they never mourned for the 
death of even their nearest or dearest friends.f 

Arnold of Lubeck describes the whole nation 
as originally wearing the garments of sailors; but 
that, in process of time, they became wearers of 
scarlet, purple, and fine linen. It may be supposed, 
therefore, that on their conversion to Christianity 
they cast their " 'nighted colour off," and that on 
their settling in England they endeavoured to out- 
shine the Saxons ; for we are told that " the Danes 

*Planche\ f See Planche\ Strutt, and Turner. 

I This fact is distinctly mentioned by Adam of Bremen in his 
Ecclesiastical History. He flourished about 1L27— see Sharon 
Turner's Hist, of Eng., Vol. I. p. 30, note. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 41 

were effeminately gay in their dress, combed their 
hair once a day, bathed once a week, and often 
changed their attire : by these means they pleased 
the eyes of the women, and frequently seduced 
the wives and daughters of the nobility." * 

In June, 1766, some workmen repairing Win- 
chester Cathedral, discovered a monument wherein 
was contained the body of Canute. It was 
remarkably fresh — had a wreath or circlet round 
the head, and several other ornaments, such as 
gold and silver bands. On one of his fingers was 
a ring, in which was set a remarkably fine stone, 
and in one of his hands was a silver penny.f 

The materials of which their clothes were made 
must have been very splendid and expensive. 
Bracelets of massive gold, and some of them 
curiously wrought, were worn by all persons of 
rank, and were buried with them. The common 
oaths of the Danes were, Ci by the shoulder* of 
their horse," or u by the edge of their sword;" 
but Alfred caused them to swear by their holy 
bracelet. The Pagan Danes had a sacred orna- 
ment of this kind kept upon the altar of their 
gods, or worn round the arm of the priest, by 
which their most solemn vows were made. 

Of their pride in their long hair, and the care 
they took of it, we have several instances recorded. 
Harold Harfage, that is, Fair-locks, made a vow 
to his belle to neglect his precious curls, which 
reached to his waist, till he had completed the con- 
quest of Norway for his " love ; " and a young 
Danish warrior, going to be beheaded, begged of 
his executioner that his hair might not be touched 

* John Wallingford — printed in Gale's Historical Britannicae et 
Anglicanae Scriptores, 2 vols, folio, Oxford, 1689—91. 
t Archseologia— Vol. III. p. 890. 

D 



42 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

by a slave, nor stained with his blood.* A few 
years after their settlement in this country, the 
fashion of cropping the hair was imported from 
France. William of Malmsbury complains that, 
in the time of the Confessor, the English had 
transformed themselves into Frenchmen and Nor- 
mans, adopting not only their strange manner of 
speech and behaviour, but also the ridiculous and 
fantastic fashions of their habits — wearing shorter 
tunics, and clipping their hair and shaving their 
beards, leaving, however, the upper lip still un- 
shorn, f 

The armour of the Anglo-Danes was similar to 
that of the Anglo-Saxons of the tenth century. 
Their offensive weapons w T ere the spear, the sword, 
the bow, and particularly the double-bladed axe. 
The Danes could use the bow, but the Saxons had 
totally neglected archery, With respect to de- 
fensive armour, it is probable that "the tunic 
covered with rings," the " ringed armour," the 
66 scaly mail/' " the shining iron rings," the " battle- 
mail by hard hands well locked," did not become 
general till the continual descents of the heavily- 
armed Danes compelled the Saxons to assume 
defences equal to those of their enemies. Mael 
was the British word for iron, so that u coat of mail " 
means coat of iron. The Norman-French were 
the first who gave the name of mail to the 
tunic covered with rings. The other defensive 
armour of the Saxons and Danes was the shield, 
and the helmet with the nasal. 

The dwellings of the English during the Anglo- 
Saxon government were hovels built of wood or 

* Jomswikinga Saga, in Bartholinus de Caus, Contempt. Mort., 
Lib. 1. c. 5. 
t Hist. Keg. Ang., Lib. III. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 4:3 

earth, and thatched with straw or the branches of 
trees. Their houses were full of crevices ; even the 
best built ones were no exception. To prevent the 
currents of air from putting out the lights of Alfred 
the Great, he invented lanterns. Their largest and 
best buildings were constructed of wood, and 
covered with thatch. For fine buildings they had 
no taste. They made no improvement in archi- 
tecture for two hundred years after their arrival 
here, the reason for which appears to be, that 
wherever the Danes went, they invariably burnt 
all the houses, monasteries, &c, they came to. 
Towards the end of the Heptarchy the Saxon 
kings lived chiefly at Winchester, in Hampshire. 
The houses of the most wealthy had glass windows ; 
but the huts in which poor people lived, had only 
a small hole with a bit of horn for a window. 
There was only one sort of floor to any house, and 
that was the bare ground strewed with rushes, 
which by the wealthy were often changed, but by 
the poor often allowed to remain till the dirt and 
smell became far from agreeable. Stoves and 
chimneys were unknown. The fire was made 
upon the floor, and the smoke made its escape 
either through the doorway, or through a hole in 
the roof. 

The furniture was somewhat rude, heavy, and 
ill-looking. This they knew; for, to hide the 
defects of their coarse carpentry, they covered it 
with needle-work. Benches and stools with cover- 
ings are mentioned as their seats. The needle- 
work was much ornamented with pictures of animals 
and flowers. After the introduction of spinning, 
women were so constantly employed at the distaff 
that it became the symbol of the sex ; and at the 
present time, when the bans of matrimony are 



44 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

published, those women who have not been pre- 
viously married, are sometimes called spinsters. 
The king's palace was hung with needlework 
done by Saxon ladies, his bed had a board at the 
head and another at the feet, a curtain hung on 
the side farthest from the wall, his bed and pillow 
were only straw, and his coverlet the skin of a bear. 
u Their tables were occasionally very costly, being 
sometimes of silver and. gold, but generally of 
wood ; they were sometimes inlaid with gold, silver, 
and gems." * Bells of different sizes, candlesticks, 
silver mirrors, beds and bed-hangings, and coverlets 
made from the skins of bears and other animals, 
were used by the Saxons. 

The Saxons and Danes lived chiefly upon pork 
and fish, drank large quantities of ale and mead, 
&c., and often ate and drank to excess. The 
thanes spent the greater part of their time in 
giving entertainments to their friends and followers. 
Their feasts were much more remarkable for 
quantity than quality ; for instance, the Danish in- 
habitants of Northumberland, in particular, were 
fond of horse-flesh, which they devoured in great 
quantities. The wealthy sat at a table raised 
above that of the inferior guests ; on the raised 
table at one end of the room were the best provi- 
sions, wines, &c, which could be obtained, but we 
road that the servants had little but black bread, 
and a very common sort of beer. From the paint- 
ings of some of the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, a 
knowledge of their customs at table may be 
gathered. In the engraving of an Anglo-Saxon 
dinner-party from the Cotton. MS., Tib. C. 8, the 
table is of an oval form, and covered with a cloth. 
Upon it there is a knife, a spoon, a bowl with a 

♦Smith's Pic. Hist, of Eng., p. 80. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 45 

fish ; and there are two other dishes, and some 
loaves of bread. At each end of the table are two 
attendants upon their knees, with a dish in one 
hand, and in the other a spit holding a piece of 
meat, which they are presenting to the guests. 
In other drawings of the manuscripts, the table is of 
a different form, ladies are represented as present, 
and the two sexes are arranged apparently without 
any precise order. 

Cups of gold and silver were used — also of 
bone and wood. Horns were much used at table. 
A curiously carved horn of the Anglo-Saxon times 
is still preserved in York cathedral. Glass vessels 
were little known in this country previous to the 
Norman Conquest. A disciple of Bede applied to 
Lullus, in France, to know if there was any man 
in that neighbourhood who could make glass 
vessels well — he said, "For we are ignorant and 
helpless in this art." * 

The Anglo-Saxon kings, queens, and nobility, 
lived in a kind of rude pomp, and were surrounded 
by a crowd of officers, servants, and others. 
Canute never appeared in public, nor made a 
journey without three thousand armed men about 
him. Both Saxons and Danes appear to have 
been fonder of feasting and merry-making than 
the ancient Britons. Every time they had an op- 
portunity of eating and drinking, they did so. 
Think of a house in which a dead body lay till it 
was put in the grave. What a scene of continued 
feasting, singing, dancing, and all sorts of merri- 
ment ! In some places in the north they kept the 
dead unburied till they had consumed, in feasting, 
games, &c, all the money the poor man had left 
behind him. This custom prevailed in times of 

* Smith's Pic. Hist, of Eng., pp. 142, 143. 



46 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

paganism, as well as for some time after; for, though 
the church discouraged it, it was too agreeable to 
their great fondness for feasting and a jolly life, to 
be soon done away with. 

Bede tells us that, as early as the seventh cen- 
tury, it was customary at convivial meetings to 
hand a harp from one person to another, and that 
every one present played upon it in turn, singing 
a song to the music. This may be presumed to 
have been the case when the professional harper 
was not present, whose business was to amuse the 
company. 

The most important characters at the festivals 
and other popular gatherings of the Anglo-Saxons, 
were the gleemen or merry-makers, and the 
w harpers." The gleemen were jugglers and panto- 
mimists as well as minstrels, and they were accus- 
tomed to associate themselves in companies, and 
amuse the spectators with feats of strength and 
agility, dancing and sleight-of-hand tricks. 

Among the minstrels who came into England 
with William the Conqueror, was one named 
Taillefer, of whom it is related that he was present 
at the battle of Hastings, and took his place at the 
head of the Norman army, inspiriting the soldiers 
by his songs. Before the battle commenced, he 
advanced on horseback towards the English lines, 
and casting his spear three times into the air, 
caught it each time by the iron head, and then 
threw it among his enemies, one of whom he 
wounded. He then drew his sword and threw it 
into the air, catching it as he had done the spear 
with such dexterity, that the English who saw him 
believed that he was gifted with the power of en- 
chantment.* 

* Smith's Pic. Hist, cf Eng., p. 137. 




Feasting. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 47 

The term minstrel — in Norman-French minis- 
traulx — came into use in England soon after the 
Conquest, at which time, it is believed, that the 
class of minstrels and jesters became much more 
numerous. They enjoyed many privileges, and tra- 
velled from place to place, in time of war as well as 
of peace, in perfect safety; their persons were 
held sacred, and they were received wherever they 
went with the warmest welcome and hospitality. 
Those who had lived in the south of France were 
called troubadours — those in the northern provinces, 
trouveres. These poets became known throughout 
Europe for their songs of love and war, in which 
they celebrated the beauty of women and the 
achievements of the brave. 

In England the professors of the minstrel's art 
were of various classes, which were distinguished 
by the various names of singers, relaters of heroic 
actions, jesters, balancers, jugglers, and story- 
tellers. About the end of this period every great 
baron kept a jester as a part of his household 
establishment. The word jester, in its original 
sense, did not necessarily mean joker, or buffoon, 
but a teller of tales ; which might be of a kind to 
excite either laughter or pity. The jesters, how- 
ever, were usually employed at feasts, and in the 
hours of conviviality ; and they found the tales of 
merriment so much more popular at such times, 
that it is probable the most serious part of their 
vocation fell into disuse. In later times the 
jesters and japers became mere merry andrews, 
whose business it was to excite mirth by jokes 
and ludicrous gesticulations.* 

We learn from a letter of St. Jerome to Dar- 
danus— de diversis generibus musicorum instruments 

* Smith. 



48/ MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

— the musical instruments which were in use in the 
fifth century. He mentions the organ — various 
kinds of trumpets — the cithar, in the form of a 
Greek delta (a), with twenty-four strings — the 
psalteriurn, a small harp of a square form, with ten 
strings — the tympanum, or hand-drum — and several 
others. In the ninth century we read that the 
number of musical instruments had increased to as 
many again. In the tenth century, Bishop 
Elfega caused to be made, for the church at Win- 
chester, an organ which, in size and construction, 
surpassed any that had hitherto been seen. 
This organ was divided into two parts, each having 
its bellows, its key-board, and its player — twelve 
bellows above, and fourteen below, were set in 
motion by sixty-six strong men, and the wind was 
passed along forty valves into four hundred pipes, 
arranged in groups of ten, and to each of these 
groups corresponded one of the twenty-four keys 
of each key-board. Its sounds are said to have 
been heard over the whole town.* Among the 
Anglo-Saxons, the music upon which the greatest 
attention was bestowed, was that employed in the 
services of religion. Singing in churches is said 
to have been introduced into England in the 
fourth century. Musical notes were invented by 
Guido Aretino, a monk in Italy, during the reign 
of Edward the Confessor. 

The Saxons and Normans were strongly attached 
to the sports of the field. Like the ancient 
Britons, they were fond of hunting ; it was con- 
sidered a necessary part of the education of every 
man of rank. Games, and exercises of strength 
and agility, were common among the Anglo- 
Saxons. Of their diversions we may mention 
* Smith. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 49 

sword and buckler play, various games with balls, 
and bob-apple. Backgammon and chess were 
known — at any rate, games very similar to them. 
Backgammon is said to have been invented in the 
tenth century. The Quintain was a military 
exercise : a staff was fixed in the ground, and 
therefrom hung a shield, at which the player on 
horseback rode full tilt, endeavouring to strike it 
with his lance. Sometimes the Quintain was so 
made that, if the horseman failed in striking it in 
the right place, he received a severe blow on his 
pate for his non-success. 

The sport of hawking, or the art of training and 
flying of hawks for the purpose of catching other 
birds, is a very old one. In the middle ages it 
was in high favour, and was practised by ladies 
and men of the highest rank. Such folk rarely 
appeared without their hawks ; sometimes they 
even carried them into battle. In the Bayeux 
tapestry, Harold is represented with his hounds 
by his side, and a hawk in his hand, when brought 
before William of Normandy. Among the wealthy 
of this period, such a mode of travelling was com- 
mon. Hawks were considered as the symbols of 
nobility ; and a man who gave up his haw T k was 
regarded as disgraced and dishonoured. They 
were trained and tended with the greatest care. 
To prevent them from seeing, their heads were 
covered with a little cap fastened behind with a 
strap, and adorned with a plume ; the falcons of 
princes and great powerful men were known by 
these plumes being of the feathers of the bird of 
paradise. Thus armed, the birds were carried to 
the chase in a cage, and when it rained were 
covered with umbrellas. Of course it was not an 
easy thing to train a falcon ; in the first place, it 



50 MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS OF 

had to be taught to know its master, then to be- 
come familiar with the noises of dogs and men ; 
and then, to prevent the risk of its flying away, it 
was trained by means of a lure, which was an imi- 
tation of a bird. On the lure was placed a small 
piece of warm flesh of fowl, and the falcon was 
taught to come and eat at the bidding of the falconer. 
A cord was attached to the bird's leg, and the 
person holding the cord retired a short distance, 
while another lifted the bird's cap and set it at 
liberty. What we have said on this subject is 
taken from the u Livre du Roy Modus" the first 
work on the subject, we believe. 

The marriage ceremonies of the Anglo-Saxons 
and Danes, and other particulars connected there- 
with, were curious. The day before the wedding 
day, all the relations and friends of the bridegroom, 
ha.ving been invited, arrived at his house, and spent 
the time in merriment, and in preparing for the 
important ceremony. Next morning, the bride- 
groom's company mounted on horseback complete- 
ly armed, and then proceeded in great order to 
conduct the bride safely to the house of her future 
husband. After the nuptial benediction was given, 
the bride and bridegroom were crowned by the 
priest with crowns made of flowers. The wedding 
dresses of the bride and three of her maidens — of 
the bridegroom and three of his attendants — were 
of a peculiar colour and shape, and could not be 
used on any other occasion. When night came, 
the newly-married couple were conducted to and 
placed on the hymenean couch, where they drank 
of the marriage cup with all who were present. 
On the following morning, before the two arose, 
the company assembled in the bedroom to hear 
the husband declare the morning gift; in other 




Hawking. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 51 

words, what settlement and indulgences he would 
allow his wife. When the gift was declared, a 
sufficient number of his relations undertook to 
see that he would perform what he promised. 
Feasting and rejoicing continued for several days ; 
indeed, they seldom ended till all their provisions 
were consumed. 

The law r s of matrimony were observed with 
great strictness. Examples of adultery were very 
rare ; and w T ho can wonder ? The husband of the 
adulteress cut off her hair in presence of her rela- 
tives — stripped her almost naked — turned her out 
of his house, and whipped her from one end of the 
village to the other ! Any woman thus exposed 
never recovered her character ; and neither youth, 
beauty, nor riches, could procure her another 
husband.* 

Women of all ranks generally nursed their own 
children. It was not always so, however, else the 
following severe remark, quoted by Adams, w T ould 
not have been called for: — "A certain wicked 
custom hath arisen among married people, that 
some ladies refuse to nurse the children whom they 
brought forth, but deliver them to be nursed." 

The Anglo-Saxons were a superstitious people, 
and were often engaged in foretelling future events. 
The means they employed were very simple. Bits 
of wood cut from a fruit-bearing tree, and distin- 
guished by different marks, were jumbled together 
in a white cloth. When the ceremony was pro 
bono publico, a priest asked God's aid, lifted up 
his eyes towards heaven, took up a slip three 
times successively, and then, counting the num- 
ber of notches or marks upon it, foretold either 
good or evil accordingly. If the ceremony was a 

* Adams — New Hist, of Great Britain. Book II., ch. 8. 



52 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

private one, the father of the family acted instead 
of the priest. They had other means of prognos- 
tication, such as the singing and flight of birds, 
and the neighing of horses, particularly those of a 
white colour. White horses they thought were 
the gods' ministers, and on that account all those 
of a white colour were kept in woods and groves, 
at the expense of the public. 

The Saxons had no covered temples for some 
time after they came to this country. Before the 
arrival of Augustine, however, they had some fine 
ones. The sacred fire therein was never extin- 
guished, and near it stood a vessel for receiving 
the blood of victims — also a brush to sprinkle it 
upon the audience. Yule, corresponding to our 
Christmas, was one of their greatest festivals. 
Before the introduction of Christianity, they had 
many gods. The days of the week were so called 
from the principal gods they worshipped. On the 
first day of the week they worshipped the sun ; 
hence the day on which they worshipped it was 
called the suns day, or Sunday. On Monday they 
worshipped the Moon — on Tuesday, Tuisco — on 
Wednesday, Woden — on Thursday, Thor — on 
Friday, Friga— and on Saturday, Seater. Saxon 
and Danish priests believed in and taught the 
immortality of the soul, and that after death the 
good would be rewarded and the bad punished. 
Valhalla was the name of the place where heroes 
and brave and good men went after death ; wherein 
they spent the day in martial sports, and the night 
in merriment and feasting, eating the flesh of the 
boar, and drinking beer or mead out of the skulls 
of their enemies whom they had slain in battle. 
The skulls were presented to them by young 
virgins, who waited upon them at table. The 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 53 

place to which all cowards and bad men went after 
death, they called Niflcheim, or the Abode of Evil ; 
where Hela dwelt, whose palace was anguish, her 
table famine, and her bed leanness. At the end of 
this world the heavens, the earth, and the gods 
themselves, were to be consumed by fire ; from the 
ashes of this world was to arise another far more 
glorious — good, just, and brave men were to be 
admitted into a palace of shining gold, and cow- 
ards, adulterers, assassins, &c. ? were to be confined 
in a place built of the dead bodies of serpents. 
Such was the creed of the Anglo-Saxons and 
Anglo-Danes whilst they were pagans. 

We have said before that Gregory the Great 
regretted to hear that the English knew nothing 
of the Great Teacher and his teachings. Hence, 
when he became pope, he did what he could for 
the good of the " fair Saxons." He sent Augus- 
tine and forty other monks into England : King 
Ethel bert gave them an audience, and, having 
heard what they had to say, very wisely said that 
he could not, without further consideration, aban- 
don the religion of his forefathers ; but, as they 
had come a long way on a friendly visit, he allotted 
them a residence at Canterbury, and gave them 
full permission to exercise their influence on his 
subjects. The result was, that the king and many 
of his subjects were converted, and on Christmas- 
day many — some say ten thousand — were baptized. 
This important event occurred a.d. 596. Ethel- 
bert gave up his own palace to the Roman mission- 
aries, and where Canterbury cathedral now stands 
they built a church. 

With respect to the Anglo-Saxon form of govern- 
ment, the knowledge which has been handed down 
to us is very limited. We suppose that the govern. 



54 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

ment of the different states varied, and that it was 
changed from time to time during the six centuries 
of Anglo-Saxon rule. It appears, however, that at 
all times and in all the seven kingdoms, there was 
a national council called Wittena gemot, an assembly 
of wise men. The consent of this council was 
necessary before any law could be passed; in a 
word, before £iiy thing of importance could be 
done. It consisted of the nobility, the wealthy 
landowners, and the dignified clergy. 

The criminal laws of the Anglo-Saxons were 
extremely mild ; very seldom was a man put to 
death, even for the worst crimes. The unruly 
were punished with fines, servitude, branding, or 
the loss of some member, such as an ear, finger, 
hand. In the reign of Edmund the Magnificent, 
England was infested with robbers, to prevent 
which Edmund made a law that, whenever a gang 
of robbers was caught, the oldest man amongst 
them should be hanged. This is said to be the 
first law, relative to hanging, which the Anglo- 
Saxons made. The price of all kinds of wounds 
was fixed by the Saxon laws. A wound an inch 
long under the hair was valued at one shilling, one 
of the same size in the face two shillings, thirty 
shillings for the loss of an ear, and so forth. The 
price of a limb was not the same throughout the 
country. In one county it might be valued at 
£3, in another at only £2. By the laws of 
Ethelbert, any man who committed adultery with 
his neighbour's wife was obliged to pay a fine, and 
buy him another wife. 

When the judges could not either condemn or 
acquit a prisoner, they had recourse to an ordeal, 
which was considered an appeal to heaven. The 
prisoner either walked barefooted and blindfolded 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 55 

over nine hot ploughshares, placed a certain dis- 
tance from each other, took redhot iron in one of 
his hands, thrust his arm into boiling water, or 
was thrown into a river, having his feet and hands 
tied. In the second and third modes of ascer- 
taining whether a man was guilty, the water and 
iron were consecrated with many masses, prayers, 
&c. This being done, the man accused either took 
up with naked hand and arm a stone from a vessel 
filled with hot water, or carried a piece of hot iron 
a certain distance. Then his hand was wrapped 
up, and the covering sealed for the next three days, 
at the expiration of which the cloth was taken off, 
and, if no marks of burning or scalding were to be 
seen, he was considered innocent, but he was de- 
clared guilty if any burn or scald appeared. 

There could be no greater impositions on the cre- 
dulity of mankind than those fiery ordeals. The 
ceremony was performed by a priest, in whose charge 
the prisoner was for three days before the trial. 
All persons were excluded from the church till the 
iron was heated. Of course this gave the prisoner 
every opportunity to make it u all right " with 
the priest ; and in brief, it always so happened that, 
if he had made it " all right " with the priest, he 
was pronounced innocent, but, if he had not done 
so, he afterwards had reason to regret it. No 
friend of the church or priests ever suffered — an 
enemy or opponent invariably did. 

"The highest officer in the courts of the Anglo- 
Saxon kings was the mayor of the palace, always 
a prince of the royal family. The priest of the 
household was the next in dignity, who sat at the 
royal table to bless the meat, and to chaunt the 
Lord's prayer. The third in rank was the steward, 
who had a variety of perquisites, of which the 



£6 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

following were the most remarkable. 'As much of 
every cask of plain ale shall belong to the steward 
of the household as he can reach with his middle 
finger dipped into it, and as much of every cask of 
ale with spiceries as he can reach with the second 
joint of his middle finger, and as much of every cask 
of mead as he can reach with the first joint of the 
same finger/ There was also a judge of the house- 
hold, who settled all disputes that arose among the 
servants of the royal family. A learned education 
and a long beard were indispensable qualifications 
of this great officer. The silentiary was an officer 
whose duty it was to command silence in the hall 
when the king sat down to table. He then took 
his stand near one of the pillars, and, when any 
improper noise arose, he immediately quashed it 
by striking the pillar with his rod. But the most 
remarkable of all was the king's feet-bearer. This 
was a young gentleman, whose duty it was to sit 
on the floor, with his back towards the fire, and hold 
the king's feet in his bosom while he sat at table, to 
keep them warm and comfortable ; a piece of state 
and luxury unknown in modern times." * 

The coins of the English, during the period 
under consideration, were mancuses, shillings, 
pennies, halflings, and feorthlings. The mancus 
was a gold coin, equal to seven shillings of our 
present money — the shilling was a silver coin, 
equal to elevenpence three farthings— the penny 
was likewise a silver coin, equal to threepence — 
so were the haflings and feorthlings, the former 
worth about three-halfpence, and the latter worth 
about three farthings, of our money. They had a 
brass coin, the value of which was half a farthing 
of their money ; of ours, a farthing and a half, 

* Adams— New History of Great Britain, p. 58. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 57 

The brass coins were called stycas. Their pound 
was unlike ours ; it weighed about twelve ounces 
troy. 

If we may judge from the use the Anglo- 
Saxons and Anglo-Danes made of the warm-water 
bath, they were certainly lovers of cleanliness. 
The warm bath was considered one of the neces- 
saries of life. A common penance, enjoined by 
the canons of the church, to such as had been 
guilty of enormous sins, was to abstain from 
bathing in warm water, and to bathe in cold water, 
to which they had a great dislike. When a man 
had committed a very great sin, he had not only 
to abstain from the warm bath, but had to give 
his food, drink, clothes, bed, fire, and bath, to a 
certain number of poor people. 

Few improvements in the arts were made by 
the Anglo-Saxons. Blacksmiths were highly 
respected in those times, because they made offen- 
sive and defensive arms and armour. Nearly 
every military officer had a smith, who went about 
with him to keep his arms and armour in good 
condition. Masonry was restored, and some other 
arts connected with it introduced into England, 
towards the end of the seventh century, by Milfrid 
and Benedict Biscop, two clergymen travellers. 
Bede says : — " In the year 674, Benedict crossed 
the sea, and brought with him a number of masons, 
in order to build the church of his monastery of 
stone, after the Eoman manner, of which he was 
a great admirer. When the work was far ad- 
vanced, he sent agents into France to procure 
glass-makers, to glaze the windows of his church 
and monastery, who not only performed the work 
required by Benedict, but instructed the English 
in the art of making glass for windows, lamps, 

E 



58 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

drinking-vessels, and other uses." As was said 
in the first chapter of this work, the ancient 
Britons were acquainted with the art of making 
glass, but the Saxons had seldom or never practised 
it till the seventh century. During this period 
our forefathers were acquainted with the arts of 
working in gold, silver, iron, lead, and jewels. 
St. Duustan, archbishop of Canterbury, was the 
best blacksmith^ brazier, goldsmith, and engraver 
of his time. From what Pennant says, we conclude 
that he could play the ^Eolian harp : — 

" St. Dunstan's harp, on the church wall, 
Upon a pin did hang : 
The harp itself, with strings and all, 
Untouched by hand did twang." 

The Anglo-Saxon husbandmen had but a very 
imperfect knowledge of farming. The plough was 
very lightly made, and had only one handle. 
Horses were not then used for field labour — oxen 
were employed, and in some parts of England 
they are still used. The author of the Black Book, 
which is now in the Exchequer, says — " In ancient 
times our kings received neither gold nor silver 
from their tenants, but only provisions for the 
daily use of their household. This custom con- 
tinued even after the Conquest, during the whole 
reign of William I., and I myself have conversed 
with several old people who had seen the royal 
tenants paying their rents in several kinds of pro- 
visions at the king's court/' By the laws of Xna, 
king of the West Saxons, the following rent was 
to be paid for a farm consisting of ten hides of 
land — namely, ten casks of honey, three hundred 
loaves of bread, twelve casks of strong ale, thirty 
casks of small ale, two oxen, ten wethers, ten 
geese, twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask of butter, 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 59 

five salmon, and one hundred eels. In some 
places the rents were paid in wheat, rye, oats, 
malt, flour, hogs, and sheep, according to the 
nature of the farm, or the custom of the country.* 

The principal exports were tin, lead, hides, 
horses, and slaves. The Anglo-Saxons are accused 
of making merchandize even of their nearest rela- 
tions — a custom, says an historian who lived after 
the Norman Conquest, " which prevails in Nor- 
thumberland, even in our own days." 

Spices were a great luxury, and came from 
India through Italy. We read that four ounces 
of cinnamon were sent from one church dignitary 
to another as a great present. 

After Ina, an Anglo-Saxon king, had given up the 
crown, he retired to Rome, where he built an English 
college, and for its support levied a tax of one penn}'- 
upon every family in England. The money thus 
collected was called Peter's pence, because it was 
collected every year on St. Peter's day, and con- 
siderably exceeded the income of the kings of 
England in the thirteenth century. Henry VIII. 
stopped the payment of it. 

Ethelred, who lived in the ninth century, cre- 
ated his brother Alfred an earl, which is the first 
mention of that title in history. Comes in Latin, 
alderman in Saxon, and earl in Dano-Saxon, were 
synonymous. 

People in those times entered into societies for 
mutual support and protection ; and, amongst 
other things, to prevent their giving abusive lan- 
guage to each other. The fine for using abusive 
language was a measure of honey. 

Candles have probably been in use from a 
period of high antiquity. We know that they 

* Adams— Hist, of Great Britain, Book II. Ch. 6. 



60 MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS OF 

were in use in the ninth century. The Anglo- 
Saxon word for candlestick — candel sticca — seems 
to denote that the earlier candlesticks were made 
of wood. In this period the candle was not placed 
in a socket as at present, but fixed on a long 
spike. 

Some of the Anglo-Saxons were remarkable for 
their longevity. When Turketul became abbot 
of Croyland monastery, he found there three aged 
monks. The eldest died in the 168th year of his 
age, and was the oldest Englishman we ever heard 
of^ except the famous Henry Jenkins, who was 
born in May, 1500, and died in December, 1670 — 
Jenkins lived upwards of 169 years, seventeen 
years longer than old Parr. 

Athelstan caused the Bible to be translated into 
the Saxon language, and one to be placed in every 
church. To encourage commerce, he ordered that 
every merchant who had made three voyages 
should be made a thane. 

To get rid of the Danes, Ethelred II., surnamed 
the Unready, agreed to pay them the sum of 
£30,000, levied by way of tax and called Dane-geld, 
Dane-money, which was the first land-tax in 
England. The money was raised by levying a tax 
of one shilling on every hide of land. A hide of 
land was perhaps such a quantity of land as might 
be ploughed with one plough in a year. Bede 
reckons it as much as would maintain a family. 
Some say it was a hundred acres ; others that it 
contained no certain number of acres. The division 
of England into hides of land is very ancient, 
mention being made of it in the laws of Ina. 

Edward the Confessor pretended to cure, by his 
touch, persons who had the jaundice : this was 
called " touching for the king's evil." 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 61 

In the time of Charles II., the practice of 
touching as a cure for the king's evil was at its 
height ; in the first four years after his restoration, 
he " touched " nearly 24,000 persons. Dr John- 
son, when a boy, was taken by his father from 
Lichfield to London, to be touched for the evil by 
Queen Anne, in 1712. The words, " I touch, but 
God healeth," were invariably pronounced by the 
sovereign when he administered "the sovereign 
salve," as Bulwer calls it. We also read of vervain 
root and baked toads being worn in silken bags 
around the neck, as charms for the evil ! 

With respect to the origin of ivakes, Timbs says 
— The festival of the day on which the church of 
any parish was dedicated, is specially enjoined in 
the law of Edward the Confessor ; and from this 
festival originated the wakes of more modern 
times — a name derived either from the verb weiken, 
to consecrate, or, as seems more probable, from the 
Saxon word for the vigil by which the festival 
was preceded. The institution of these festivals is 
to be traced to Gregory the Great, who advised 
Mellito, whom he had sent as abbot into Britain, 
to encourage the people to hold festivals around 
the churches on the days of their consecration, or 
of the commemoration of the martyrs whose relics 
were placed there, that he might prevent them 
from attending their idol feasts. 

Formerly there were many wolves in this 
country, and one of the most remarkable incidents 
in the reign of Edgar, was the extirpation of them. 
The king effected this by hunting them himself; 
also by changing the tribute-money, usually paid 
by the Welsh princes, into an annual tribute of 
three hundred wolves' heads. An interesting tale 
on this subject may be found in the first volume of 



62 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Agnes Strickland's "Tales and Stories from 
History." 

Where Westminster Abbey now stands, there 
used to be a heathen temple dedicated to Apollo. 
Sebert, king of Essex, pulled it down and built a 
church in its place, which he called St. Peter's. 
He also pulled down another pagan temple dedi- 
cated to Diana, and built a cathedral, which he 
called St. Paul's. The university of Cambridge 
was founded by him, a.d. 644. 

The famous king Arthur was born in Cornwall. 
He was chosen king of Britain — often defeated the 
Saxons — established an order of knighthood called 
"The Knights of the Bound Table "—proved 
himself a brave warrior — was beloved by the 
people — and died in the year 542 at the age of 
ninety. 

The names which the Anglo-Saxons gave to the 
months of the year, are, like most other Saxon 
words and names, very expressive. 

January was by the heathen Saxons called 
" wolf month," because the wolves were then most 
ravenous. It was also called " Aefter-Yula," or 
After- Christmas. 

February they called the "Cake month/' in 
allusion to the cakes which in this month they 
were in the habit of offering to their gods. The 
well-known custom of making pancakes on Shrove- 
Tuesday is a remnant of the old superstition, and 
certainly one of the most pleasing that has come 
down to us. 

March was dedicated to the goddess Khoeda, 
and hence called "Ehed-monath." "Illyd-monath," 
the stormy month, was another name by which it 
was known. After the introduction of the teach- 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 63 

ings of Jesus, March was held in great reverence, 
as the month in which Lent began. 

April was the month of the goddess Eustre. 

May was called " Trimilki," because then they 
began to milk the kine three times in the day. May- 
day was the great rural festival of the Anglo-Saxons., 
and was celebrated w r ith great pomp and rejoicing. 
This festival will soon be numbered with the 
things that were, though the May-pole with some 
ceremonies is still retained in many of our villages. 
In former times, on May-day morning the priests 
and people went in search of poles, and when 
they had got them, they adorned and brought 
them to their respective villages, after which they 
placed them in the ground, where they remained 
nearly the whole year, and were resorted to at all 
times of festivity. The last May-pole in London 
was taken down in 1717- John Stow says: — 
a On May-day morning every man except impedi- 
ment, would walk into the sweet meadows and 
green woods, there to rejoice their spirits with the 
beauty and savour of sw x eet flowers,, and with the 
harmony of birds praising God in their kind." 
Henry VIIL rode a-maying with his queen 
Katherine. 

June, it appears, w r as sometimes called " Weyd- 
monath," because then the cattle began to weyd, 
wade, through the meadows, which at that time 
were usually marshes. It was also called " Mid- 
summer month/' This was the month in which 
the Saxons commenced their long voyages. 

July was called " Hen-monath," or foliage month. 
" Hey-monath," hay month) was another name by 
which it was known. 

August was called " Arn-monath," or €i Barn- 
monath," meaning harvest month. 



64 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

September was called tC Gerst-monath," barley 
month ; so named from the liquor called " beer- 
legh," made in that month, and hence barley. 

October was called the " Cold-monath/' or 
6i : Wyn-monath " — wine month. The vine was 
extensively cultivated in England at the time of 
the Saxons. 

November was called " Blod-rnonath," blood 
month; as great numbers of cattle were then 
killed, either for winter stores, or as sacrifices to 
their deities. It was a custom to light great fires 
in the open air in honour of the gods, and as a 
means of driving away evil spirits. 

December was called " Fust-monath," also 
"Winter monath;" after the introduction of 
Christianity it was called lt Helig-monatb," holy 
month. There was more festivity in this month 
than in any other. Previous to the year 597, 
Christmas was the feast of Thor. 

Literature was little thought of by the Saxons 
and Danes. The only books they had were a few 
manuscripts, skins, &c, written upon and pre- 
served by the monks. The monasteries were the 
schools of the middle ages, in which all u secular 
knowledge," as well as religious doctrine, was 
cultivated. Previous to the invention of printing, 
books were transcribed with great pains and 
labour, and some of them were beautifully illumi- 
nated and adorned. In uncivilized countries the 
priesthood is generally the best informed ; but 
many of the Saxon clergy could neither read nor 
write their names. This was true of the English 
priesthood till after the invention of printing. It 
is not uncommon to find in the deeds of a synod 
a sentence like this— " As my lord bishop cannot 
write himself, at his request I have subscribed/' 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 65 

Even Charlemagne — the man of renown, the 
theme of minstrels, and the hero of romance — 
could not write his name till he was forty-five 
years of age. When the Romans were here they 
instructed the Britons; but the Saxons and Danes 
acted a very different part. Most of the books 
left here by the Romans, were served as the 
foolish Arabs served the valuable library of 
Alexandria — destroyed. Alfred the Great said — 
" At my accession to the throne, all knowledge 
and learning were extinguished in the English 
nation ; insomuch that there were very few to the 
south of the Humber who understood the common 
prayers of the church, or were capable of trans- 
latino; a single sentence of Latin into English : but, 
to the south of the Thames, I cannot recollect so 
much as one who could do this." So dear were 
books in Alfred's time, that we read he gave an 
estate of eight hides of land for a single volume 
Oil cosmography. There were, however, a few 
scholars in those wretched times, the chief of whom 
were Gildas the Wise, the only British historian of 
the sixth century whose works have come down 
to us ; Columbanus, a native of Scotland, a monk, 
a writer, and the contemporary of Gildas ; Bede, 
author of an ecclesiastical history and other works ; 
— Aldhelm, and Alfred the Great. Columbanus 
founded an abbey in France, and made some 
monastic laws, which were so severe, that if any 
one of the monks smiled during "divine service/' 
he was to receive fifty lashes with a whip. King 
Alfred, being a good scholar for those ages, and a 
true patriot, encouraged literature — founded some 
schools at Oxford — divided all England into shires, 
hundreds, and tithings-^-ereated the English navy 
— established trial by jury, and made some good 



G(j MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP 

laws, &c. &c. His laws were very mild ; but the 
strictness wherewith he caused them to be ob- 
served somewhat counterbalanced their lenity. 
It is said his police force was so good, that when 
golden bracelets were hung up near the highway, 
no one durst touch them. We have our doubts 
about this. With unjust judges Alfred was very 
severe ; forty-five were executed for corruption in 
the space of one year. He divided England into 
counties or shires — from the Saxon w r ord scyre y to 
divide ; these again into hundreds, which were 
subdivided into tithings, to which the inhabitants 
w 7 ere obliged to belong, under pain of being treated 
as vagabonds. Alfred's object in doing this was 
to prevent vagrancy and crime. Ten neighbour- 
ing houses made a tithing, and ten tithings made 
a hundred. In every tithing there was a magis- 
trate, who w r as responsible for the conduct of the 
ten houses. 

Whilst Alfred lay concealed in the isle of Athel- 
ney, he made a vow that, if he should be restored 
to his kingdom, he would dedicate one-third of his 
time to God. True to his word, he allotted eight 
hours every day to acts of devotion — eight hours 
to public affairs — and the remaining eight out of 
the twenty-four to sleep, study, and necessary 
refreshment. He measured his time by means of 
wax candles marked with circular lines of different 
colours, which served as so many hour lines. To 
prevent the wind from making his candles burn 
unsteadily, he invented lanterns, in w 7 hich he placed 
his candles. In his w T ill there is the following 
remarkable and manly sentiment — "It is just the 
English should for ever remain as free as their own 
thoughts." We might say much more about the 



THE ENGLISH NATION, 67 

greatest and most useful king the English ever 
had, but this is not the place. 

The Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic language is so 
ancient that we never heard of any one tracing it 
to its origin. Some men have discovered a re- 
markable affinity between it and the Greek, both 
in radical words and in general structure. One 
thing is certain — namely, that the resemblance 
between the Anglo-Saxon and the English of our 
clay is so great, that most of the Saxon w T ords are 
now in use, though many of them are greatly 
altered in spelling and meaning. 

We know little of the true condition of the peo- 
ple at this period. This we do know, however, 
that the condition of the people — the workers, the 
tillers of the soil, and the artisans — was most deplo- 
rable. The majority of them were absolute slaves, 
the rest in a state of bondage equally oppressive. 
Their owners could whip, or scourge, or put them 
in irons. From the following passage it appears 
that they might be yoked together as cattle — 
"Let every man know his team of men, of horses, 
and oxen." * Cattle and men were the measure 
of value, and came under the denomination of live 
money, and were the medium of exchange in 
which the prices of commodities were estimated." *j* 

* Sharon Turner— Hist, of Eng. Vol. III., p. 91. 

f Wade — Hist, of the Middle and Working Classes, p, 6, 



68 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 



H» 



CHAPTER III. 

Manners and Customs, &c, of the English from the Norman Con- 
quest in 1066 to 1216— during the Reigns of the Conqueror, 
William IT., Henry I., Stephen, Henry II., Richard L, and John. 

Every fresh invasion has added new elements of 
manners, customs, habits, &c; hence for this and 
other reasons the Norman Conquest was an im- 
portant epoch in the history of the British people. 
The Normans or Northmen were originally of the 
same Scandinavian stock as the Saxons and Danes. 
Their manners were any thing but what is now 
termed po lite. There is an anecdote told of Duke 
Rollo of Normandy, and Charles the Simple of 
France, which gives us a good idea of the Nor- 
mans' manners. In the year 912, Rollo and Charles 
had an interview, at which Rollo agreed to be the 
king's vassal for some favours which the king 
granted him. When Rollo Avas about to retire, 
some one told him that he ought to kiss the king's 
(^ foot in token of vassalage. " Kiss a man's foot ! " 
\j\ replied Rollo with astonishment. Being told that 
it was a necessary and customary ceremony, the 
Norwegian beckoned to one of his soldiers, and 
bade him kiss the king's foot in his stead. The 
soldier, laying hold of the king's leg, raised the 
foot to his mouth, and the king was thrown on 
his back, amid peals of laughter from Rollo's 
soldiers ! The Normans were brave and generous, 
but they were also haughty, proud, passionate, 
and lewd. To the wives and daughters of the 
English they were very rude. They were utterly 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 69 

regardless of that respect and decency with which 
the fair sex ought to have been treated, and with 
which they were treated by the ancient Britons 
and the Anglo-Saxons. Their licentiousness was 
so great that the princess Matilda, daughter of 
Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland, and after- 
wards queen of Henry I., being educated in this 
country, was obliged to wear the veil of a nun to 
preserve her honour from being violated by them. 
The introduction of chivalry into this country 
by the Normans caused a radical change in the 
education, &c, of the wealthy. It recognized 

nothing higher or nobler than the condition of a 

• ••• 

knight. " The institution of chivalry had for its 

object the cultivation of those virtues which may 

be classed under the word manhood, in its best and 

widest sense. The true knight was supposed to 

be pious, truthful, and brave ; a generous friend, a 

gallant warrior, a devoted lover. It was necessary 

for him to add great strength of body, and skill in 

all manly exercises, to gentleness of manners and 

culture of mind. Terrible in battle, it was his 

duty to wield the sword of justice, to strike down 

the oppressor and the tyrant ; but to help the weak, 

and give his life, if need be, in the cause of the 

innocent. 

The youth who aspired to knighthood began 
his career as a page in some noble house, where, 
under the gentle influence of women, he w^as 
taught various accomplishments, and imbued with 
that beautiful though fantastic dream of honour 
which he hoped to realize in his future life. 

At the age of fourteen the page became an 
esquire, and was permitted to wear a sword. He 
now began a regular course of training for arms, 
and usually sought to attach himself to some 



70 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP 

knight of fame, whom he attended in hall or field, 
and supported in battle. The young aspirant was 
admitted to the honours of knighthood at the age 
of twenty-one, unless he had previously won his 
spurs by some gallant feat of arms. This honour 
w r as of rare occurrence, as, by the laws of chivalry, 
the duties of esquire were limited to attendance 
upon his lord, and he w^as permitted few oppor- 
tunities of personal distinction. 

The original spirit of chivalry was essentially 
religious. The initiation into the order of knight- 
hood was a religious ceremony, and usually took 
place on one of the feasts of the church, as Easter- 
day, the day of Pentecost, or Christmas day. 
The aspirant prepared himself for his new dignity 
by long vigils, fasts, and prayer ; and on the night 
before the ceremony took place he repaired alone 
to the church, where he passed the hours in 
watching beside his armour. 

On the day appointed, high mass was performed 
in the presence of the nobles and bishops and an 
assembly of the people ; and, after the sw^ord of 
the novice had been consecrated to the service of 
heaven, he took a solemn vow, according to the 
laws of chivalry, " to speak the truth, to succour the 
helpless and oppressed, and never to turn back 
from an enemy." 

The bishop then dubbed him a knight, and the 
other knights, and often the ladies present, ad- 
vanced and armed the youth. The spurs w r ere 
usually buckled on first, and thus came to be 
regarded as the symbol of knighthood. Such was 
the form by which a young man was admitted to 
the highest dignity of chivalry.* More courtesy 
of demeanour, and a removal of some of the harsh 

♦Smith— Pic. Hist, of Eng., p. 116. . 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 71 

features of the feudal system, were the effects of 
its introduction. 

One of our earliest and sweetest bards thus 
6peaks of chivalry — 

" A goodly usage of those antique times, 

In which the sword was servant unto right, 

When, not for malice and contentious crimes, 
But all for praise, and proof of manly might, 
The martial brood accustomed to fight; 

Then honour was the meed of victory, 
And yet the vanquished had no despite." — Spencer. 

Of course chivalry, like most other things, has 
its dark side as well as its bright one — Spencer 
speaks of the bright side, for he was a poet. Much 
of its charms, however, is dispelled when examined 
by the student of history. It included a strange 
combination of religious sentiments, moral ideas, 
warlike and impious habits, romantic gallantry, 
and unmanliness. A knight's favourite saying 
was, " God and the ladies ; " in theory, no doubt 
the first place would be assigned to the Deity, but 
in fact it was commonly given to the ladies. It 
made no provision whatever for the culture of the 
mind — mere polite accomplishments were only 
aimed at. The highest eulog-ium which could be 
pronounced on a knight was — u No one better 
understood to break a lance and to kiss a lady." 
For further information, see the article Chivalry, 
in the supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 
written by Sir Walter Scott ; also the article 
Chevalerie, in the Encyclopedic Moderne ; the pre- 
face to Lord Byron's Childe Harold, and Don 
Quixote. 

The best pictorial authority for the habits of our 
Norman ancestors, at the time of their conquest 
of England, is the Bayeux Tapestry. This curious 
relic, this remarkable monument of skill and in- 



72 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

dustry, originally formed one piece, and, according 
to a recent writer,* measures two hundred and 
twenty-seven feet in length, by about twenty 
inches in breadth. The groundwork of it is a strip 
of rather fine linen cloth, which through age has 
assumed the tinge of brown holland. Planche 
says it is rudely worked in coloured worsteds, like 
a sampler. It is generally supposed to have been 
the work of Matilda, w r ife of the Conqueror. It 
opens with the mission of Harold to Duke Wil- 
liam, and terminates with the battle of Hastings. 
At the present time the tapestry is preserved in 
the library of the town of Bayeux in Normandy, 
and is exposed to view in glass cases. It is fully 
entitled to our confidence as a faithful represen- 
tation of the habits, armour, and weapons of 
William and his followers.! 

During the reign of Edward the Confessor, the 
Saxons affected the fashions of the Norman-French ; 
hence, at the time of the Conquest, there was not 
a great difference between the costume of the 
Saxons and that of their invaders. The Saxons, 
Danes, and Normans, being offsets of the same 
great barbaric stock, there existed a sort of family 
resemblance between them; but, through the 
Normans establishing themselves in France in the 
tenth century, they materially improved their 
character and manners. Whilst the Anglo-Saxons 
sank into a slothful and unwarlike people, and the 
Danes continued pirates, "the Normans became 
distinguished throughout Europe for their military 
skill, their love of glory, their encouragement of 
literature, the splendour and proprietary of their 

*Rev. J. C. Bruce— "The Bayeux Tapestrv Elucidated." 
t Planche —p. 70 of Hist, of Brit. Costume. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 73 

habiliments, the cleanliness of their persons, and 
the courtesy of their demeanour." 

The degenerate and sensual Saxons imitated the 
fashions of their neighbours, but were incapable of 
copying their virtues ; and we therefore find the 
general civil costume of the Normans consisting, 
like the Anglo-Saxon, of the short tunic, the cloak, 
the drawers, with long stockings or pantaloons 
with feet to them, called by the Normans chausses.* 
Shoes and bandages were worn as the Saxons had 
worn them. Towards the end of the Bastard's 
reign, short boots were common, and a flat round 
cap, like a Scotch bonnet, and another, which ap- 
pears little more than a coif, are the general head 
coverings of unarmed persons. 

The Norman-French not only shaved their faces 
entirely, in contradistinction to the Anglo-Saxons, 
who left, at any rate, the upper lip unshorn ; but, 
before the time of the Conquest, had adopted the 
Aquitanian fashion of shaving the back of their 
heads also. This was the cause of the spies of 
Harold reporting that they had seen no soldiers, 
but an army of priests.-f- Wace, author of Ci Roman 
de Rbu," a poem on Eollo or Rou, and the other 
Dukes of Normandy, in speaking of the Normans, 
says that they were all shaven and shorn, " tout 
rez et tondu" In the Bayeux tapestry they are 
distinguished by the backs of their heads being 
closely shaven, so that they really have a monkish 
appearance. The Saxons are represented with 
hair as usually worn, and mustaches, as described 
by William of Malmsbury, and a few with beards.J 
Although the rage for cropping and shaving was 

* Planche — Hist, of Brit. Costume, pp. 70, 71. 
f William of Malmsbury— Lib. III. p. 56. 
I See Turner's England, Book VIII. c. 3, note. 



74 MANNEftS AND CUSTOMS OF 

great, the old fashion of wearing the hair long and 
flowing, was never altogether abandoned. A few 
had always the good sense not to make themselves 
look unnatural and ridiculous. Indeed the silly 
custom of shaving the face and the back of the 
head was abandoned altogether soon after their 
settlement in England, and, with the usual caprice 
of fashion, the Anglo-Normans appear to have run 
into the opposite extreme. 

" In 11 04, when Henry I. was in Normandy, a 
prelate named Serlo preached so eloquently against 
the fashion of wearing long hair that the monarch 
and his courtiers were moved to tears ; and, taking 
advantage of the impression he had produced, the 
enthusiastic prelate whipped a pair of scissors out 
of his sleeves, and cropped the whole congre- 
gation!" 

This was followed up by a royal edict prohibiting 
the wearing of long hair ; but in the next reign, 
that of Stephen, the old fashion was revived, 
when in 1139 it received a sudden check from an 
exceedingly trifling circumstance. A young soldier, 
whose chief pride lay in the beauty of his locks, 
which hung down almost to his knees, dreamed 
one night that a person came to him and strangled 
him with his own luxuriant ringlets. This dream 
had such an effect upon him that he forthwith trim- 
med them to a rational length. His companions fol- 
lowed his example, and, superstition spreading the 
alarm, cropping became again the order of the day. 
But this reformation, adds the historian, was of 
very short duration : scarcely had a year elapsed 
before the people returned to their former follies, 
and such especially as would be thought courtiers 
permitted their hair to grow to such a shameful 
length, that they resembled women rather than 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 75 

men ; those whom nature had denied abundance 
of hair supplying the deficiency by artificial means. 
Wigs therefore may date in England from the time 

of Stephen The fashion of wearing 

long beards reappeared during the reign of Henry 
I., and was equally reprobated by the clergy. Both 
Serlo in his sermon, and Odericus Vitalis in his 
Ecclesiastical History, compare the men of their 
day to " filthy goats!"* 

We read that the Normans and Flemings who 
came with the Conqueror into England, as well as 
the great numbers who came soon after, were re- 
markable for their ostentation and love of finery. 
Personal decoration was their chief study, and 
perhaps as many new fashions were then introduced 
as in our own time.| 

In the reign of Rufus the clergy and laity 
became alike infected with the love of extravagant 
and costly clothing. The short tunic was length- 
ened and worn fuller, and the sleeves particularly 
so. The long tunic worn on state occasions, and 
the linen vestment worn beneath it, positively 
trailed upon the ground. The sleeves were also of 
length and breadth sufficient to cover the whole 
hand.J That the rich wore gloves is proved from 
what is said of the Bishop of Durham's escape 
from the Tower in the reign of Henry I. — having 
u forgotten his gloves," he rubbed the skin off his 
hands to the bone in sliding down the rope from 
his window. § The mantles were made of the 
finest cloth, and lined with rich furs;j| one pre- 
sented to Henry I., by Bloet, Bishop of Lincoln, 

♦Planche"— Hist, of Brit. Costume, pp. 88, 89. 

f Strutt's Dress and Habits. . 

J Planche — taken from the E. Hist, of Odericus Yitalis. 

§ Odericus Vitalis, pp. 780 and 787, 

filbid. 



76 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

was lined with black sables with white spots, and 
cost i?100.* With the shorter tunic a shorter 
cloak was worn lined with the most precious furs. 
Peaked-toed boots and shoes, of an absurd shape, 
excited the wrath and contempt of the monkish 
historians. Odericus Vitalis says they were in- 
vented by some one deformed in the feet. The 
peaked-toed boots, called ocrece rostratce, were 
strictly forbidden to the clergy. The shoes called 
pigacicB had their points made like a scorpion's tail, 
and a courtier named Robert stuffed his out with 
tow, and caused them to curl round in form of a 
ram's horn, a fashion which took mightily amongst 
the nobles, and obtained for its originator the 
cognomen of Cornadu.f 

During the reign of the second Henry the fashion 
of indenting the borders of tunics and mantles seems 
to have been introduced, as a statute was passed 
just before that monarch's death prohibiting certain 
classes the wearing of cut or jagged garments. J 
Stockings and chausses were worn as usual. The 
hair in John's reign "was curled with crisping- 
irons, and bound with fillets or ribbons ; and the 
beaux of the period continually went abroad with- 
out caps, that its beauty might be seen and ad- 
mired." § 

The dress of the poorer people continued to be 
a tunic with sleeves. Those pretty w^ell off wore 
chausses and shoes or short boots; and in bad 
weather, or when travelling, covered their heads 
and shoulders with a cloak or mantle, to which was 
attached a cowl, and called by the Normans capa. 

The Anglo-Norman ladies were attired similarly 

* Malmsbury, Lib. V. p. 98; Henry Huntingdon, p. 222. 
f Planche. 

J Gervase of Dover and John of Brompton r sub anno 1188. 
| Planche". 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 77 

to the Anglo-Saxon. They wore the long tunic, 
and over it a garment answering to the Saxon 
gunna or gown, but which of course the Normans 
called rob?; and the veil or headcloth, which in 
like manner they rendered couvrechef, from whence 
our word kerchief. The principal novelty is in 
the gown or robe, which was laced close to fit the 
figure, and had sleeves tight to the wrist, and 
then suddenly widening and falling to some depth. 
The borders of the dresses were of gold, and very 
broad. The hair, mostly covered, appears to have 
been long, and sometimes plaited in two or more 
divisions, after the Gothic fashion. From about 
the end of the eleventh century to the middle of 
the twelfth century, the rage for lengthening every 
part of the dress was not confined to the men. 
The sleeves of the tunics, and the veils or ker- 
chiefs of the ladies, appear to have been so long in 
the reigns of Rufus and Henry I., as to be tied 
up in knots to avoid treading on them, and the 
trains or skirts of the garments lay in immense 
rolls at the feet. 

Towards the end of this period a few alterations 
were made : the robe lost its extravagant cuffs, and 
the sleeves were made tight, and terminated at the 
wrist. A rich girdle loosely encircled the waist, 
and the queen of Richard I. is represented with 
a small pouch called an aulmoniere. In form it 
resembles a modern reticule, and hung from the 
left side of the loose girdle. A garment called 
bliaui or bliaus, which probably was only another 
name for the surcoat or supertunic, is frequently 
mentioned as lined with fur for the winter. In 
this bliails we may discover the modern French 
blouse, a tunic or smock-frock. * 

* Planch^— Hist, of Brit. Cogtume. 



78 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

The military costume of this period presents us 
with several novelties. The first is the capuchon 
or cowl, fastened to the tunic covered with rings. 
Over this was placed the conical helmet, with its 
nasal, and in some instances there was a neck-piece 
behind. Both Normans and Saxons are represented 
in the ringed tunic, which descends below the knee. 
Being cut up a little way before and behind for 
convenience in riding, it appears, from the rudeness 
of this representation, as though it terminated in 
short trousers. The Norman name for this mili- 
tary vestment was Hauberk, Latinized Halbercum, 
which is commonly derived from Halsberg, a pro- 
tection for the throat. * The Normans' shields 
were nearly of the shape of a boy's kite, and are 
supposed to have been assumed by them in imita- 
tion of the Sicilians. They bear rude effigies of 
dragons, serpents, lions, crosses, rings, &c. 

The Normans were good archers : to their arrows 
generally is attributed the issue of the battle of 
Hastings, liufus is represented on his great seal 
in a scaly suit of steel or leather armour, with a new 
head-piece, called by the Normans a chapelle-de-fer: 
it wa3 an iron cap of a very Tartar-like shape. 
In the reigns of liufus and Henry I. the collar of 
the hauberk was drawn up over the chin and 
mouth, and fastened to the nasal, so that the eyes 
only were visible. Next were introduced steel 
cheek-pieces. The second seal of Henry I. re- 
presents him without a helmet, the cowl of mail 
being drawn over a steel cap called a coif-de-fer, 
in contradistinction to the chapelle-de-fer worn 
over the mail. In the reigns of Richard I. and 

* Vide Mey rick's letter on the body armour anciently worn in this 
country. Archseologia, Vol. XIX. Vide {i Critical Inquiry," by the 
same author. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 79 

John, some striking changes in the military 
dress were made. The shield was emblazoned 
with heraldic bearings, the long tunic was worn 
under, and the surcoat was worn over the coat of 
mail. The Crusades originated these changes. 
Their other arms comprised the long-bow, the 
cross-bow, the sword, the lance, the battle-axe, 
and the gisarme. 

The Anglo-Normans introduced many elegancies 
and refinements in the habits of common life and 
customs of the table. It has been already stated 
that the Saxons were gross in appetite, and that 
they spent much of their time at feasts. The 
Normans were somewhat temperate in eating and 
drinking, &c, about the time they came to 
England. Amongst the dainties held in high es- 
teem by them were the peacock and the crane. 
The boar's head was considered a regal dish, and 
at large feasts it was taken to the table in a kind 
of procession, preceded by musicians. They had 
only two meals a day, dinner and supper. Nine 
o'clock in the morning was their dinner-time, and 
jivem the afternoon was their supper hour. Meals 
at these hours were thought to be conducive to 
health and long life. The following lines, which 
were by them often repeated, prove this — ■ 

"Lever a cinq, diner a neuf, 
Souper a cinq, coucher a neuf, 
Fait vivre dans nonante et neuf."* 

The Anglo-Normans, however, were not so 
temperate after they had been in this country for 
some time ; for we find that at Christmas, Easter, 
and Whitsuntide the kings of England gave sump- 

* To rise at five, to dine at nine, 
To sup at five, to bed at nine, 
*»,ake a man live to ninety-nine* 



,80 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

tuous entertainments to their nobles and prelates. 
Those entertainments produced a taste for profuse 
and expensive living; and proud and wealthy barons 
aped in their castles that which they had seen 
in the palaces of kings. A writer who was pre- 
sent at one of these entertainments says that it 
lasted from three o'clock in the afternoon till mid- 
night, and that delicacies were served up winch 
had been brought from Constantinople, Babylon, 
Alexandria, Palestine, Syria, and Phenicia. These 
delicacies must have been very expensive; for 
Thomas a Becket gave £5, a sum equal to £75 
of our money, for one dish of eels ! The wealthy 
had some kinds of provisions at their tables which 
could not be found in the British isles now. 
* ; When Henry II. entertained his own court, the 
great officers of his army, with all the kings and 
great men of Ireland, in Dublin, at the festival of 
Christmas, the Irish princes and chieftains were 
quite astonished at the variety of dishes which they 
beheld, and were not easily prevailed upon to eat 
the flesh of cranes, a kind of food to which they 
had not been accustomed." * During the time of 
the Crusades, when many of the bishops and 
abbots went to Palestine, the priests and monks 
abandoned themselves to luxury, sloth, and the 
devil. Giraldus Cambrensis tells us that the monks 
and prior of St. Swithin one day threw themselves 
prostrate on the ground and in the mire before 
Henry II., complaining, with many tears and most 
doleful lamentations, that the bishop of Winchester, 
who was also their abbot, had cut off three dishes 
from their table. " How many has he left you ? " 
said the king. c i Ten only," replied the disconsolate 
monks. " I myself had never more than three" 

* Adams— New Hist, of Gt. Britain, p. 98. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 81 

said Henry, u and I enjoin your bishop to reduce 
you to the same number." 

The most popular amusements in this period 
were hawking, hunting, and tournaments. The 
tournament was introduced into England in the 
reign of Stephen. " The martial sports, commonly 
called tournaments, were very favourite diversions 
in those ages. When a prince had resolved to hold 
a tournament, he sent heralds to the neighbouring 
courts and countries to publish his design, and to 
invite all brave and loyal knights to honour the 
intended solemnity with their presence. This 
invitation was accepted with the greatest joy, and 
a vast number of ladies and gentlemen commonly 
assembled. All the knights who proposed to 
enter the lists, hung up their shields in the cloister 
of a neighbouring monastery, where they were 
viewed by the ladies and knights. If a lady 
touched one of the shields, it was considered as an 
accusation of its owner, who was immediately 
brought before the judges of the tournament, tried 
with great solemnity, and, if found guilty of 
having defamed a lady, or of having done any thing 
unbecoming the character of a true and courteous 
knight, he was degraded, and expelled the assem- 
bly with every mark of infamy. The lists were 
surrounded with lofty towers and scaffolds of wood, 
in which the princes and princesses, ladies, lords, 
and knights, with the judges, marshals, heralds, 
and minstrels, were seated in their proper places, 
in their richest dresses. The combatants, nobly 
mounted and completely armed, were conducted 
into the lists by their respective mistresses, in 
whose honour they w^ere to fight, with bands of 
martial music, amidst the acclamations of the 
numerous spectators. In these exercises represen- 



82 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

tations were exhibited of all the different feats of 
actual war, from a single combat to a general 
action, with all the different kinds of arms, as 
spears, swords, battle-axes, and daggers. At the 
conclusion of every day's tournament the judges 
declared the victors, and distributed the prizes, 
which were presented to the happy knights by the 
noblest and most beautiful ladies in the assembly. 
The victors were then conducted in triumph to the 
palace ; their armour was taken off by the ladies 
of the court ; they were dressed in the richest 
robes, seated at the table of the sovereign, and 
treated with every possible mark of distinction. 
They became the greatest favourites of the fair, 
and the objects of universal admiration. The 
most magnificent tournament celebrated in this 
period, was that proclaimed by Henry II. of 
England, in the plains of Beaucaire, at which no 
fewer than 10,000 knights were present, besides 
ladies and other spectators. " * 

When companies of knights attacked each 
other, the encounter was called a melee; but 
generally two only engaged in combat. In the 
encounters persons were sometimes killed. Henry 
the Second's son Geoffrey was killed in a tourna- 
ment at Paris. 

Strutt describes some military sports as peculiar 
to the young men of London in the twelfth 
century. At this period, too, the same writer says 
that it was common for the young men and maidens 
of the city to meet for dancing and merrymaking 
after the labours of the day ; that the city damsels 
played on citherns for the amusement of all present; 

♦Adams— New Hist, of Great Britain; pp. 96-7. See Mills's 
History of Chivalry, Ch. VI., on Tournaments and Jousts. 




Wandering Minstrels. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 83 

and that the dancing was kept up by the light of 
the moon, "usque imminente luna." 

Most of the arts and scenes then known were 
greatly improved, especially agriculture, sculpture, 
painting, and architecture. In the twelfth century 
great improvements were made in architecture, 
though the country people still lived in hovels. 
Glass windows were first used in private houses in 
the year 1180. In John's reign chimneys were in- 
vented ; before his reign the smoke had to escape 
either through the doorway, or through a hole in 
the roof. As far as we can ascertain, the Normans 
introduced very few articles of furniture in the 
eleventh century. It is probable, however, that 
the improvement of taste and increased wealth 
were soon manifested in the application of the 
useful and decorative arts to the convenience of 
domestic life. An incident is related by an old 
writer, which presents a glimpse of the manners 
in the reign of Henry II. In winter time Becket's 
apartments were every day covered with clean 
straw or hay, and in summer with green boughs or 
rushes, lest the gentlemen who wanted to see him, 
but could not get a place at the table, should by 
sitting on the floor soil their clothes ! Wealthy 
folk mostly lived in castles, which were huge, 
massive, prison-like buildings, enclosed with walls 
of immense thickness, and surrounded by a deep 
moat or ditch. Over the moat was a bridge, which 
could be drawn up or let down at pleasure. The 
castles were comfortless places to live in ; the rooms 
were small, and the light was admitted into them 
through chinks or loopholes. The floors were 
covered with rushes; in the middle of many of the 
rooms stood a massy table, surrounded by coarse 
benches* The baron and his family lived in the 



84 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

upper part of the castle, the retainers in the lower 
part. The dependants were crowded together, 
slept on straw, and had plenty to eat and drink. 
The tables were generally loaded three times a 
day, and, though the food w^as coarse, yet it was 
plentiful. 

It was during the period under consideration, 
that surnames were introduced into England. 
Family names were so called because they were 
originally written over the Christian name— sw or 
sursum is the Latin word for over. Until the 
Norman Conquest, persons generally had only one 
name, as Edwin. Harold, Edward. 

The names Robert, William, Richard, and 
Henry, were introduced by the Normans ; and for 
a long time even these were used singly by poor 
people. Many took their surnames from events 
in their lives, or from something remarkable in their 
dress, manner, occupation, &c. &c. Let us take 
a few examples. William I. was called the Con- 
queror, from the fact of his having conquered 
England; sometimes he was called the Bastard, 
because he was illegitimate. He was the son of 
Robert, Duke of Normandy, by Harlotta, daughter 
of a tanner in Falaise. William II. was surnamed 
Unfits, or the Red, from the colour of his hair. 
Henry I. was surnamed Beauclerk, because for 
those times he was a good scholar. Henry II. 
was surnamed Curt, or Shortmantle* because it is 
said that he introduced a mantle called the cloak 
of Anjou, which, being shorter than those worn in 
previous reigns, obtained for him the cognomen of 
Court Manteau. Henry II. was the first of the 
house of Plantagenet, or Plantagenest. The original 
name of his father was Martel, which was changed 
to Plantagenet, because his father used to wear on 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 85 

his helmet a bunch of flowering broom — plante-de 
genet — instead of a plume. Martel was the first 
earl of Anjou ; in consequence of his having com- 
mitted some great crime, he was enjoined to visit 
Palestine. Dressed as a pilgrim, he proceeded on 
his journey, and wore a piece of broom on his cap 
as a mark of humility, of which this plant was 
the symbol. In remembrance of his penance, he 
adopted the title of Plantagenest, and his descen- 
dants inherited the surname. Richard I. was sur- 
named Ccear de Lion, on account of his valour. 
John w T as surnamed Sansterre, or Lackland, for 
this reason : all the sons of Henry II. had some 
dominion except John, and so the courtiers and 
others in ridicule called him Sansterre. Edward 
I. was called Longshanks, because he had long 
thin legs. Henry IV. was surnamed Bolingbroke, 
from his being born at a village of that name in 
Lincolnshire. Richard III. was surnamed Crook- 
back, from his being deformed. 

The wealthy had family names long before the 
people generally adopted them. That many of 
our surnames were taken from trades aud occupa- 
tions, from the possession of lands, &c. &c, is well 
known, as Smith, Taylor, Miller, Fisher, Carpenter, 
Mason, French, &c. From the signs which trades- 
men put up before their shops, are derived such 
names as King, Duke. Some names were conse- 
quently borrowed from trades, occupations, &c , 
which are now obsolete ; hence the origin of such 
names has become obscure, as Walker, one that 
dressed cloth in the walkmiln — Fletcher, he who 
trimmed arrows by adding the feathers — Arrow- 
smith, one who made piles — Bowyer, he that made 
bows — Falkner, from falconer, one who trained 
hawks — Forster, or Foster comes from, forester — 



86 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Archer, Monk, Abbot, Grantham, Ely, Preston, 
and many others. 

When Malcolm III., king of Scotland, invaded 
England, and reduced the castle of Alnwick, the 
besieged were obliged to surrender, and only 
requested that the king himself would receive the 
keys of the gates. The king consented, and the 
keys were brought by Robert de Mowbray upon 
the top of a spear, who, standing within the walls 
of the castle, pierced the lance through the kings 
eye as he was going to take them. For this 
exploit the governor received the surname of 
Pierce-eye, now changed to Percy, which is still 
the family name of the Duke of Northumberland. 

The Puritans? about the time of Cromwell, 
among other objects of reformation which they 
laid down in their discipline, had this article — 
u Let not woman only offer children to baptism, 
but the father, if it may be convenient, or some 
other in his name. Let persuasion be used, that 
such names as do savour either of Paganism or 
Popery be not given to children, but principally 
those whereof there are examples in the Scrip- 
tures." But those scrupulous zealots were not 
content with the plain scriptural names of Abra- 
ham, Obadiah, Zachariah, Ruth, Rebecca, &c. 
They adopted phrases, and sometimes sentences, 
for the Christian names of their children, such as 
"The Lord is near "— " More-try all "—"Reform- 
ation " — " Discipline " — " Joy-again " — u Suffi- 
cient" — " From above " — " Heavenly mind " — 
" Free-gifts "— " More fruit 'W Fight the good 
fight " — " Dust," &c. &c. One of the puritanical 
ministers was so bigoted in this respect, that he 
refused to christen a child because the father 
insisted on having his son called Richard ! 



THE ENGLISH NATION". 87 

On reference to the prices of various articles of 
absolute luxury, it may be perceived that the 
English at this period must have had no small 
amount of money. Rings of the value of one 
mark — £10 present money — seem to have been an 
ordinary article of dress. Silks and fine cloths 
were valued at sums varying from £3 the yard, 
present money. The price of spices was enormous. 
Cinnamon was two shillings and sixpence — £1, 17s. 
6d. per lb. Ginger the same. Nutmegs ten shil- 
lings — £7, 10s. ; mace the same price ; while cloves 
were twenty shillings — £15, per lb. 

"In reading accounts of the expense of living 
in past ages, its amount, at first sight, appears 
almost incredibly low; the reader, in few cases, 
rightly estimating the comparative value of money 
in the past and present times. Thus, the silver 
shilling in the twelfth century, and for some 
centuries afterwards, weighed three times as much 
as it now does ; and, on account of the scarcity of 
money, the expense of living varied from one-fifth 
to one-eighth of what it does at the existing period. 
The real proportion is continually varying ; but in 
order to avoid exaggeration, and to arrive at an 
even sum, 6f has been assumed as the general 
average, and this multiplied by three gives twenty ; 
or, in other words, the value of a certain sum then 
was equal to twenty times as much as at the 
present day. From the increasing quantity of the 
circulating medium soon after this period, the dif- 
ference in the expense of living decreased to the 
average of five ; and therefore, and for some cen- 
turies to come, the multiplier will be fifteen instead 
of twenty." * 

Little alteration was made by the Normans in 

* Youatt on Sheep, p. 200. 



$8 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

the coins used by the Anglo-Saxons. During this 
period the silver penny is sometimes called an 
esterling or sterling. At the present time good 
money is sometimes called sterling. Antiquaries 
are not decided about the origin and meaning of 
the word sterling. It is probable that some artists 
from Germany, who were called Esterlings from 
the situation of their country, had been employed 
in fabricating our money, which chiefly consisted 
of silver pennies, and that from them the penny 
was called an esterling, and our money esterling 
or sterling money. Henry I. coined a great deal 
of silver. The most valuable silver coin was the 
mark, the value of which was 13s. 4d. There was 
no gold coin till the reign of Henry III., and no 
copper coin till the reign of James I. 

William I. was not only the most warlike, but 
the most politic prince of his time. He knew 
power followed property, and for this reason took 
care to establish such institutions in the country 
as would retain the military authority of the king- 
dom in the hands of those who had assisted him 
to obtain possession of it. With this view feu- 
dalism was established in England. England was 
divided into 60,000 parts among his Norman 
barons, upon certain conditions, which were- — that 
every baron who received a part, should supply the 
king when he went to war with a horse-soldier, 
fully armed, by which means he had 60,000 horse- 
soldiers free of all expense. The feudal system 
was not confined to the barons — they subdivided 
their large parts into smaller ones, which they let 
out to their dependants upon similar conditions. 
The bishops and abbots were also bound to furnish 
the king during war with a certain number of 
knights, in proportion to the extent of their pos- 
sessions. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 89 

To make the people forget that they were 
Saxons, the Conqueror introduced the Norman 
dress, and tried to abolish the Saxon language. 
He caused all his laws to be written in Norman- 
French — seized all copies of the Scriptures written 
in Anglo-Saxon — forbad the clergy to perform 
service in Saxon — and established schools in which 
French and Latin were the only languages either 
taught or spoken. 

Although William I. had sixty-eight royal 
forests and parks, he laid waste ninety square 
miles of land in Hampshire to make a forest for 
deer. If any Englishman shot even a stray deer, 
he was either put to death, or sentenced to lose 
one of his eyes or hands, or to receive some other 
similar punishment. 

The Court of Chancery and the Court of Ex- 
chequer were established by the Bastard. The 
object of the Court of Chancery is to mitigate the 
law when it is too strict. In the Court of the 
Exchequer, all cases relating to the king's revenue 
are tried ; it was so called because the clerks 
formerly used exchequer or check boards to assist 
them in their calculations, or from the chequed 
cloth resembling a c/iess-board which covers the 
table there ; and because this court was originally 
established to call the king's debtors to account, 
the term check came to signify to examine into 
accounts. Check is derived from echecs, the 
French for a cAess-board. The civil officers, the 
lord chief justice, and justices of the peace, were 
appointed by William I. 

The same king commanded the Doomsday book 
to be written, which contains an account of all the 
estates, houses, lakes, rivers, and forests in England 
at that time ; also the exact amount and nature of 



90 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

each man's property, and the number of inhabitants 
thereon. This is considered the most valuable 
monument of antiquity possessed by any nation : 
it is still preserved in the Exchequer, and consists 
of two volumes in vellum. 

In the latter part of the Conqueror's reign no 
Englishman was allowed to carry arms, or to have 
a light burning in his house after eight o'clock at 
night. That the people might know when to put 
out their fires and lights, a bell was tolled at 
eight o'clock every night. The bell was called the 
'' Cur-few bell/' from two French words couvre 
and feu, meaning cover the fire. The custom is 
still kept up in some parts of the country, and 
among others at Staveley, near Chesterfield, where 
a bell is tolled at eight o'clock every evening. 

William I. built the tower of London, which 
was designed for state prisoners. It w^as first 
made a royal residence by Stephen, and was fre- 
quently used as such until the reign of James II. 
He also built Battle Abbey to commemorate the 
conquest — introduced beheading as a punishment 
— and, to prevent an invasion similar to his own, 
he fortified the five ports generally called the 
cinque points; Cinque is the French word for five. 
The five ports were Dover, Hastings, Eomney, 
Hythe, and Sandwich. 

An old author, in speaking of the Bastard, 
quaintly says : — " He let his lands to fine as dear 
as he could : then came some other and bade more 
than the first had given, and the king let it to 
him who bid more : then came a third, and bid yet 
more, and the kinglet it into the hands of the man 
who bade the most. Nor did he reck how sinfully 
his reeves got money of poor men, or how many 
unlawful things they did : for the more men talked 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 91 

of right law, the more they did against the law. 
* * * * He also set many deerfriths ; and he made 
laws therewith, that whosoever should slay hart 
or hind, him man should blind. As he forbade the 
slaying of harts, so also did he of boars. So much 
he loved the high deer, as if he had been their 
father. He also decreed about hares, that they 
should go free. His rich men moaned, and the 
poor men murmured ; but he was so hard that he 
recked not the hatred of them all ; for it was need 
they should follow the king's will withall, if they 
wished to live, or to have lands, or goods, or his 
favour. Alas ! that any man should be so moody, 
and should so puff up himself, and think himself 
above all other men! May Almighty God have 
mercy on his soul, and grant him forgiveness of 
his sins !" * 

The most remarkable event in the reign of Ru- 
fus was the first crusade — a war undertaken by 
various European princes to rescue Palestine from 
the Mahometans. Peter the Hermit was the man 
who induced so many thousands of men, women, 
and children to join the crusades. He said that 
all persons who joined the holy war should receive 
pardon for all their sins, and that if they died 
in battle they should go to heaven. Pope Urban 
II. warmly espoused his cause, and Peter set out 
with a view to rouse the feelings of all against the 
Mahometans. "He set out, from whence I know 
not, nor with what design; but we saw him at 
that time passing through the towns and villages, 
preaching every where, and the people surround- 
ing him in crowds, loading him with presents, and 
celebrating his sanctity with such high eulogiums, 
that I never remember to have seen such honours 

* Saxon Cbron., 189—191. 



92 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

paid to any other person. He showed himself 
very generous, however, in the distribution of the 
things given to him. He brought back to their 
homes the women that had abandoned their hus- 
bands — not without adding gifts of his own — and 
re-established peace between those who lived un- 
happily, with wonderful authority. In everything 
he said or did, it seemed as if there was something 
divine; so much so, that people went to pluck 
some of the hairs from his mule, which they kept 
afterwards as relics ; which I mention here, not 
that they really were so, but only served to satisfy 
the public love of anything extraordinary. While 
out of doors he wore a woollen tunic, with a 
brown mantle, which fell down to his heels. He 
had his arms and his feet bare, ate Httle or no 
bread, and lived upon fish and wine." * 

There were eight crusades in all, which lasted 
for a period of two hundred years, and upwards of 
three millions of Europeans perished in the East. 
They ended in the reign of Edward I., a.d. 1292. 
These eight wars were called the Crusades,. because 
the soldiers wore a cross on their right shoulders. 
Every man who joined the sanctified army wore 
the sign of the cross upon one of his shoulders. 
The English had them white — the French, red — 
the Flemish, green — the Germans, black — and the 
Italians, yellow. Many adventurers assumed that 
" sacred emblem," in the belief that it would afford 
a perpetual absolution for any crimes they might 
commit. Thieves and murderers — liars and slan- 
derers — criminals of every dye, joined the cru- 
saders. For a few years they were the plague of 
Europe, and the scourge of Asia and Egypt. 
They ruined millions of families — rich as well as 
* Guibert Nogent. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 93 

poor. Murders, rapes, and robberies, were every 
where committed with impunity by the pretended 
armies of Christ. Whatever wrong the crusaders 
might do, they had full pardon of all their sins — 
past, present, or future — confirmed to them by the 
papal bulls. In addition to this, they were told 
that angels would carry their souls straight to 
heaven, if they died in the holy warfare. 

Great was the number of those who joined the 
crusades even in England, and laughable are some 
of the tales told by old writers about folk who 
would join the u most holy army/' In most cases 
the parting of children and parents, husbands and 
wives, was most touching. On the other hand, 
some wives and mothers there were, who in their 
fanatic zeal animated their husbands and sons to 
the journey, and parted from them without a tear. 

M. Guizot has shown, in his admirable "Lec- 
tures on European Civilization," that great good 
resulted from the crusades. The Mahometans 
looked upon the crusaders as the most brutal, 
ferocious, and stupid mortals it had ever been their 
lot to behold. The crusaders, on the other hand, 
were struck with the exhibition of wealth, and the 
refinement of manners, amongst the Moslems. 
Here, then, was one grand result of the crusades. 
Society was civilized by intercourse with foreign 
nations, heroic deeds roused the imagination of 
poets, and enlarged intercourse with men produced 
enlarged ideas. Navigation and shipbuilding, 
commerce and agriculture, literature and science, 
arts, &c, were all benefited. 

The Pope's power in this country was great in 
this period, especially towards the end of it. The 
progress of his dominion exhibits one of the most 
remarkable facts in the history of the world. It 



9 4 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

was a form of tyranny the most appalling. Vari- 
ous causes contributed to its progress — the decline 
of learning in the south of Europe — political 
changes — the ambition of popes — the servility of 
the clergy — the knavery of many distinguished 
ecclesiastics, and the ignorance of others ; and the 
operation of uncontrolled circumstances, moving 
in the same direction, all contributed to produce 
and establish the foolish, crafty, and hellish system. 
An illustration of the satanic aspect it wore to- 
wards the civil liberties of mankind, is afforded in 
the bull issued by Innocent against the barons of 
England, who had nobly wrung the great charter 
from their reluctant king: — " On the part of the 
omnipotent God, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, 
by the authority also of the blessed Peter and 
Paul, his apostles, and by the common consent of 
our brethren, we reprobate and condemn a treaty 
of this kind; prohibiting, under pain of our ana- 
thema, the king from presuming to observe, and 
the barons and their accomplices from daring to 
exact, its conditions." * The bull was treated by 
the barons with the contempt it deserved. 

The boasted successors of Peter, the fisherman 
of Galilee, were surrounded by a court, and 
attended by a retinue surpassing the dazzling 
grandeur of kings. To meet the expenses thus 
incurred, the most shameless extortions were 
practised. Well might the people exclaim — "Rome, 
who is the mother of the churches, shows herself 
to others, not so much a mother, as a cruel step- 
dame. The Scribes and Pharisees sit there, 
placing on mens shoulders burdens too heavy to be 
borne/' f 

* Rymer's Federa, Vol. I. p. 135. 
f Joan. Saresb. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 95 

One of the pope's instruments was Thomas a 
Becket, who, before he became archbishop of 
Canterbury, was a very gay and reckless courtier, 
and lived in splendour ; but, after he became head 
of the priesthood in England, he clothed himself 
in rags, and lived on the meanest food. He wore 
sackcloth next his skin : his usual fare was dry 
bread and bitter water; he flogged himself fre- 
quently ; and every day washed the feet of thirteen 
beggars. 

Becket did all he could to oppose the second 
Henry, and the contest ended in Becket's death. 
The king, being indirectly the cause of the prelate's 
murder, disgraced himself by riding from South- 
ampton in one night without resting, and, upon see- 
ing Canterbury cathedral at the dawn of day, dis- 
mounted from his horse, threw from him his shoes 
and royal robes, and walked the rest of the way 
barefooted along a stony road. He next descended 
the crypt in which the corpse of Becket lay, knelt 
upon the tombstone, took off some of his clothes, 
and exposed his back to the scourge. Each of the 
bishops then took a whip with several lashes, such 
as were used for penance, and struck the king 
several times on the shoulders, saying — u As 
Christ was scourged for our sins, so be thou for 
thine own ; " the rest of the monks present, to the 
number of about eighty, then took the whips and 
gave some rather heavy blows, so that the 
penance endured by the king was not merely 
nominal. The scourging did not end the deeds of 
humiliation. Henry remained prostrate a day and 
a night before the tomb, during which time he 
took no food : the result of all this was a fever, 
which confined him to his chamber for several 
days. In the reign of Henry III., Becket's bones 



96 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

were enshrined in gold, and pilgrims from all parts 
paid their devotions at his tomb — which was very 
properly destroyed in the reign of Henry VIII. 

Henry II. assembled a council at Clarendon, in 
Wilts, a name still famous for the constitutions 
there enacted, called the " Constitutions of Claren- 
don/' which checked the authority of the Roman 
see over the English clergy. 

In the reign of John, the Pope laid the kingdom 
under an interdict, and afterwards under a sen- 
tence of excommunication. Adams, in speaking 
of this interdict, says : — 6l By this sentence the 
nation was of a sudden deprived of all the exterior 
rites of religion. The altars were despoiled of 
their ornaments. The crosses, the relics, the 
images, the statues of the saints, were laid on the 
ground ; and, as if the air itself were profaned, 
and might pollute them by its contact, the priests 
carefully covered them up, even from their own 
approach and veneration. The use of bells en- 
tirely ceased in all the churches. The bells them- 
selves were removed from the steeples, and laid on 
the ground with the other sacred utensils. Mass 
was celebrated with shut doors, and none but the 
priests were admitted to that holy institution. 
The dead were not interred in consecrated ground, 
but were thrown into ditches, or buried in common 
fields. The people were prohibited the use of 
meat, as in Lent, and debarred from all pleasures 
and amusements. They were forbidden even to 
salute each other, or so much as to shave their 
beards, and give any decent attention to their 
person and apparel. Every thing wore the ap- 
pearance of the deepest distress, and of the most 
immediate apprehension of divine vengeance and 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 97 

indignation." * The sentence of excommunication 
was permission for all subjects to rebel, and for 
any Christian king to make war upon King John 
and dethrone him. 

The monks lived in monasteries ; each monk 
had a separate cell, but the whole fraternity met 
at meal-times and at their devotions. The larger 
monasteries were called abbeys and priories, be- 
cause they were governed by superiors called 
abbots or priors. Abbots and priors ranked next to 
the bishops, and in their own monasteries or prio- 
ries led a jolly life. They had power to confine 
unruly monks in solitary cells, and to inflict upon 
them severe bodily chastisement. In monasteries, 
schools were established for the education of 
youth ; in them, too, travellers were entertained, 
the oppressed protected, and provisions and medi- 
cines distributed freely to the poor ; hence many 
of them were very charitable institutions. They 
were generally built by or near some river, for the 
convenience of fishing. The monastic gardens 
were beautiful, were filled w r ith many sorts of 
fruits, and the English wines made by the monks 
were equal to those of Germany, Spain, and 
France. 

The difference between the monks and friars 
was this : the monks lived in monasteries and 
abbeys, very often in great luxury ; the friars had 
no fixed residences, but travelled about preaching, 
and living on charity. The friars and monks 
w r ere jealous of each other — the former called the 
monks lazy and luxurious ; and the latter called 
the friars prying busy-bodies ! 

Henry II. abolished the absurd custom of trial 
by combat and ordeal. He also granted charters 

* New History of Great Britain, pp. 83, 84. 



98 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

to several towns. The benefits conferred upon 
townsmen by the royal charters were — liberty to 
give their daughters in marriage to whom they 
pleased ; the liberty of leaving their property to 
their children when they died ; permission to be 
governed by magistrates of their own choice ; and 
exemption from various tolls and taxes. Before 
Beauclercs reign, parents could not give their 
daughters in marriage as they liked, but were 
obliged to obtain the consent of their lord or 
baron, and had generally to pay him a sum of 
money for his consent. Neither could parents 
leave their property to their families, because the 
people were only slaves — their property belonged 
to their lord or baron. The condition of slaves 
was wretched ; they could acquire no property, 
and many of them had to wear iron collars round 
their necks. 

Henry II. divided England into six circuits for 
the administration of justice, and appointed three 
judges to each. 

In 1119 the order of Knights-Templars was 
established. The Templars were pious soldiers, 
who formed themselves into a club to protect the 
pilgrims who visited the Holy Land. They were 
so called because they had lodgings near to the 
Temple of Jerusalem. They took vows of obe- 
dience to a grand master whom they had appoint- 
ed, and also bound themselves to purity of life, 
to mutual assistance, and to fight continually 
against the infidel, never turning back from fewer 
than four adversaries. They wore a white robe, 
to which was attached a red cross. On their ban- 
ners were black and white stripes, which signified 
charity and kindness to their friends, and destruc- 
tion to their enemies. In 1312 they were sup- 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 99 

pressed for their extreme wickedness and profli- 

£ ac y- 

The king's speech on opening parliament, the 

first stone arched bridge erected over the Lea by 

queen Matilda, and from its circular form called 

Bow-bridge, the payments of rents changed from 

kind into money, a fixed standard for weights and 

measures, and the yard measure taken from the 

length of Henry's arm, date their origin from the 

reign of Beauclerc. 

Two of the most memorable events in the reign 
of Richard I. were the massacre of the Jews, 
and the exploits of Robin Hood. Thousands of 
Jews were burnt or butchered just because they 
were Jews. One reason for their being so hated 
was, that they lent money upon interest — a thing in 
those days prohibited by the church. The Jews 
have always been treated with contempt and 
cruelty by the English without just cause. As an 
instance of the manner in which those unhappy 
people were dealt with, we give the following 
story, related by the chroniclers. There lived at 
Bristol a very wealthy Jew, who, by the command 
of King John, was thrown into a dungeon until he 
should consent to pay 10,000 marks for his liberty. 
The Jew said he would not pay the money : the 
king gave orders that a tooth should be drawn 
every day till he would : the poor Jew lost seven 
teeth, and, when the man came to draw the eighth, 
the pain which the Jew had suffered overcame his 
fortitude, and he consented to pay the 10,000 
marks. This was a mild act compared with some 
of those perpetrated at that period. 

Eobin Hood was the captain of about one 
hundred brave and faithful men, who chiefly lived 
upon the king's deer in Sherwood forest. The 



100 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Saxon name of this forest was Sire-wode, afterwards 
altered into that of Sherwood. " At the time when 
the famous Cceur-de-Lion visited Sherwood, there 
lived within its recesses a man whom the Anglo- 
Saxon people regarded as their hero, and whose 
name has been handed down to us in so many tales 
and poems, that there is some danger of confound- 
ing him with the fabled heroes of romance. " There 
arose among the outlaws at this time, that most 
famous freebooter, Robert Hode, whom the com- 
mon people celebrate in their comedies and festi- 
vals, and whose exploits, related by the mimes and 
minstrels, delight them greatly." Little is really 
known with certainty about Robin Hood ; but, as 
far as can be gathered from the ancient ballads, he 
owed his position as chief of the marauders to 
superior intelligence as well as valour. He was a 
Saxon by birth, and of no higher rank than that 
of a peasant ; the stories which assume that he had 
been Earl of Huntingdon, or was descended from 
an earl, are at variance with the older narratives. 
Among the former is a beautiful romance, which 
would make him out to be the very child of 
the woods, born there Ci among flowering lilies." 
However this may be, it is certain that he passed 
his life in the forest, with a band of several hundred 
archers, who became the terror of all the rich lords, 
bishops, and abbots in the neighbourhood, es- 
pecially those of Norman birth. Robin Hood 
made war upon the rich, but he respected the 
persons of his own countrymen, and never molested 
or robbed the poor. The numerous ballads refer- 
ring to this trait in his character, are in their very 
existence a proof of what they assert ; for no man 
could have been made the theme of such general 
eulogium unless he had been much beloved by the 




'P^ titty- 



Archery. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 101 

people. Little John, the lieutenant of Robin 
Hood, is scarcely less celebrated than his chief,, 
whose constant companion he was in all his dangers 
or pleasures. Little John appears to have possess- 
ed a skill in archery second only to that of Robin 
himself of which so many incredible stories are 
told by romancers. There is also a third person 
mentioned by tradition — one Friar Tuck, who 
thought fit to retain his gown while every other 
sign of his former calling had disappeared. These 
were the most noted among Robin Hood's band ; 
a very merry company if we may believe the 
story-tellers, leading a careless, gipsy life, doing a 
great deal of harm, no doubt, but presenting, on 
the whole, a favourable contrast to the cruelty and 
tyranny of their Norman oppressors." * 

The severity of the tyrannical forest laws, 
introduced by the Conqueror, and the great 
temptation to break them, must have occasioned 
numerous outlaws, especially amongst the best 
marksmen. Such men naturally fled to the woods 
for shelter, and, forming into troops, protected 
themselves as well as they could from the dreadful 
penalties of their delinquency. The ancient 
punishment for killing the king's deer was loss of 
eyes and castration — a punishment far worse than 
death. In Stow's " Annals," we read — " In this 
time — about the year 1190, in the time of Richard 
I.— were many robbers and outlaws, among which 
Robin Hood and Little John, renowned theeves, 
continued in the woods, despoyling and robbing 
the goodes of the rich. They killed none but such 
as would invade them, or by resistance for their 
own defence. The saide Robert entertained an 
hundred tall men and good archers, with suche 

* Smith's Pic. Hist, of Eng., p. 238. 



102 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

spoiles and thefts as he got, upon whom four 
hundred durst not give the onset. He suffered 
no woman to be oppressed, violated, or otherwise 
molested ; poore men's goods he spared, abun- 
dantlie relieving them with that w T hich by theft he 
got from abbeys and the houses of rich old carles, 
whom Maior — the historian — blamethe for his 
rapine and theft ; but of all the theeves he affir- 
meth him to be the prince, and the most gentle 
theefe." For further information, see Percy's 
" Reliques of Ancient English Poetry/' and Sir 
John Hawkins* " History of Music." 

Asking marriage banns — marrying in churches 
— transubstantiation — and the inquisition, were in- 
troduced into the church during John's reign. 
The inquisition was an infamous tribunal founded 
by Pope Innocent III., to examine and punish all 
persons who were not sound Roman Catholics. 
In three hundred years, upwards of three hundred 
thousand were, by its command, burnt, strangled, 
or imprisoned as heretics. 

Judicial astrology was cultivated with more 
diligence than the most useful art or science. 
Prognosticators were so much admired that nearly 
every prince and nobleman in Europe kept at least 
one in his family, to cast the horoscopes of his 
children, discover the success of his designs, and 
the public events that were to happen. None 
but astrologers were honoured with the name of 
mathematicians. With a view to show that these 
men imposed upon the credulity of their patrons 
and the people, we mention the following inci- 
dent : — In the beginning of the year 1186, all the 
great astrologers in the Christian world agreed in 
declaring that there would arise, on Tuesday the 
16th of September, a most dreadful storm, which 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 103 

would sweep away not only single houses but even 
great towns and cities ; and that this storm 
would be followed by a destructive pestilence, 
bloody wars, and all the plagues that^ had ever 
afflicted miserable mortals. This direful prediction 
spread terror and consternation over Europe. 
When the awful day drew r near, Baldwin, archbishop 
of Canterbury, commanded a solemn fast of three 
days to be observed throughout his province. 
But to the utter confusion of poor Baldwin, and 
the mathematicians, the 16th of September w r as 
remarkably serene and fine, and the whole season 
uncommonly mild and healthy. An old quaint 
writer says — "And there were no storms all that 
year, but what the archbishop raised in the church 
by his own turbulence." 

It was dangerous in those times to write satiri- 
cal verses against men in power. Henry I. con- 
demned one Luke de Barra to have his eyes 
Eulled out, for writing defamatory ballads against 
im. When the Earl of Flanders warmly inter- 
ceded for the poet, Beauclerc replied — u This man, 
being a wit, a poet, and a minstrel, hath composed 
many indecent songs against me, and sung them 
openly, to the great entertainment and diversion 
of my enemies ; he shall therefore be punished, 
to deter others from the like petulance/' This 
damnable sentence was accordingly executed on 
the unfortunate satirist, who died of the w r ounds 
he received in struggling with the executioner. 

English commerce greatly increased in this 
period. Slaves were still among the exports, 
though at the great council held at Westminster 
in 1102, it was decreed unlawful to sell slaves 
openly in the public market. The imports were 
gold, precious stones, silk, tapestry, furs, spices^ 



104 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

and wines. In every city a jury was appointed 
to examine the merits and settle the value of 
wines ! Spices were favourite ingredients in their 
meats, drinks, and medicines — some of which 
were brought from very distant countries. 

In the reign of Richard I. the bailiff of London 
was called "The Lord Mayor/' and the motto 
" Dieu et mon Droit " was chosen for the royal 
arms. The motto is French, and means tc God 
and my right" It was used by Coeur de-Lion as 
a field-word when he besieged Giscore in Nor- 
mandy. Coats of arms were invented by the 
crusaders, to distinguish one leader from another 
when clad in armour. Every knight chose his 
own device ; but as it was thought a great honour 
to have had something to do with the crusades, 
the sons preserved the same device in their fami- 
lies, and thus coats of arms became hereditary. 
The crests were painted on the shields of the 
leaders. Richard I. adopted as his emblem three 
lions passant, which are still on the royal shield of 
England. 

It was not till the reign of Henry II. that Lon- 
don became generally recognized as the capital of 
the kingdom. In the city and suburbs there were 
then about thirteen monasteries, more than one 
hundred churches, and a fixed population of 
about 40,000. In the same reign London bridge 
was commenced to be built of stone ; for this pur- 
pose the course of the Thames was turned aside 
by cutting a canal from Rotherhithe to Battersea, 
through which the water flowed whilst the work- 
men were at work in the bed of the river. 

In 1174, the water in the Thames was so low 
that people walked across between the bridge and 
tower of London, the water only reaching up to 
the knees. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 105 

In 1174, Henry II. called together the nobility 
of Languedoc, in order to meditate a peace be- 
tween the Count of Thoulouse and the King of 
Arragon. As Henry, however, did not attend, 
the nobles had nothing to do but to emulate each 
other in wild magnificence and barbarity. The 
following instances, bordering upon insanity, show 
the spirit of those early ages, The Countess of 
Urgel sent to the meeting a diadem worth two 
thousand pounds, to be placed on the head of a 
wretched buffoon. The Count of Thoulouse sent 
a diadem of four thousand pounds to a favourite 
knight, who distributed that sum among the 
poorer knights* Another nobleman gave an im- 
mense dinner, cooked by the flame of wax tapers. 
But the singular magnificence of Count Bertrand 
Rimbault attracted the loudest applause; for he 
set the peasants around Beaucaire to plough up 
the soil, in which he sowed small pieces of money, 
to the amount of fifteen hundred English guineas. 
Piqued at this princely extravagance, and deter- 
mined to surpass his neighbours in savage brutality, 
if he could not in prodigality, Lord Raymond, 
having ordered thirty of his most beautiful and 
valuable horses to be tied to stakes and surrounded 
with dry wood, heroically lighted the piles, and 
consumed his favourites alive ! * 

In the reign of Stephen, upwards of 1100 castles 
were built by the barons : the king permitted them 
to do so, as well as to hunt in their own forests. 
Most of the castles built in Stephen's reign were 
demolished by Henry II., because the barons and 
their adherents used to go about ravaging and 
plundering, and afterwards sought refuge in their 
strong castles to escape punishment. 

* Adams— New History of Great Britain, pp. 99, 100. 

H 



106 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

In the year 1100 the sea overflowed 4000 acr'es 
of land which had belonged to Godwin, or Good- 
win, father of Harold II.' Godwin had left the 
lands by will to the monks of Canterbury; but, as 
they neglected to repair the wall, the sea rushed 
in and entirely covered them. The lands are to 
this day called the Godwin Sands ; they^ often 
prove fatal to mariners. " The sands, though like 
quicksand, are clean and unconnected ; yet they 
be so close, that it is difficult to work a pointed 
iron bar into them more than to the depth of six 
or seven feet." 

It was the barbarous custom, at the beginning 
of this period, to confiscate ships which had been 
wrecked on the coast. In 1276 it was enacted, 
that no ship should be deemed a wreck out of 
which a man, a dog, or a cat had escaped. 

The kings of England usually repeated the cere- 
mony of coronation three times every year : after 
Stephen's reign it was discontinued, as being use- 
less and expensive. 

The first standing army, and the annual election 
of a mayor and two sheriffs by the citizens of Lon- 
don, date their origin from the reign of John. 

In this period lived Nicholas Bfekespere, the 
only Englishman who ever sat in St. Peter's chair. 
He was born at St. Alban's, and in his youth did 
the meanest work about the abbey of that place ; 
being refused u the habit " in that monastery, he 
went to Rome, and after many changes of fortune 
became a bishop. In 1154 he became pope, and 
took the name of Adrian IV, ; whereupon Henry 
II. of England sent the abbot of St. Alban's, with 
three bishops, to congratulate him : Adrian re- 
turned the compliment by granting the king a bull 






THE ENGLISH NATION. 107 

for the conquest of Ireland. He was choked by a 
fly, in the fifth year of his pontificate, a.d. 1159. 

A true lover of liberty was Fitz-Osbert, or 
Long-beard-—the " saviour ' of the poor." He 
formed a secret association, which is said to have 
numbered 52,000, all of whom swore to obey him. 
On one occasion he was summoned before a 
council, composed of the barons and higher eccle- 
siastics, where the most strange accusation w r as 
brought against him, that he had excited among 
the lower classes of the people the love of liberty 
and happiness. He was called the king of the 
poor. His end was that of a martyr. 

John de Courcy, Earl of Ulster, was famous for 
his strength and prowess. To him and his descen-, 
dants John granted the privilege of wearing their 
hats in the king's presence — the present represen- 
tative is Lord Kinsale. 

Anselm w T as the first archbishop who restrained 
the English clergy from marrying. Such an act 
cannot place his name among those who were the 
" heroes and scholars " of that age. 

We will conclude the present chapter with a 
brief sketch of the condition of the English, from 
the Gorman conquest to the end of the period now 
under consideration. Of all the stages through 
which this world had to pass in its growth to 
civilization, that of feudalism was the worst — the 
most degrading, the most inhuman, and the most 
cruel. The majority of the people were tools % — 
slaves — to be used in peace or war as the barons 
pleased. With the exception of a few proprietors 
of lands, freemen,, and socmen, all were slaves; 
and this state of personal slavery continued longer 
than is generally supposed. Of feudalism, and 
its odiousness in the eyes of the people, M. 



108 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Guizot gives a clear and lucid description. We 
give a part of the passage : — u Hence, I believe 
that hatred — truly prodigious — invincible — which 
the people has borne at all times towards the 
feudal regime, its remembrance, and its name . 
. . Feudal despotism has always been odious, 
repulsed ; it has weighed upon the destinies, with- 
out ever reigning in the souls." * 

These were the days when men were compelled 
to extinguish their fires and lights at the sound of 
the curfew ; when farms and villages were destroy- 
ed, and their inhabitants driven forth that their 
places might be occupied by the king's forests, 
whose game and wild beasts were more precious 
than men. You might kill a man for twelve-pence ; 
but kill a deer or wound a king's hound, and the 
punishment would be a slit nose, the loss of ears, 
or it might be the right hand, or even life. Such 
was feudalism ; and it was only in rare cases where 
the priest interfered — and he was the only man 
who did or dared to interfere — that its cruelties 
were lessened, or its dreadful punishments and 
tortures in any wise mitigated. To the people it 
was a period of miserable slavery.f 

This state of things could not and did not last 
long. The poor Saxons, though cruelly oppressed 
and beaten under foot, still made their sting felt. 
Some bold men, the favourite heroes of our oldest 
ballads, betook themselves to the woods, and there, 
in defiance of the laws, waged predatory war 
against their oppressors. Assassination was an 
event of daily occurrence. Many Normans sud- 
denly disappeared, leaving no trace — the corpses 

* Guizot — Hist, de la Civilization en Europe, Quatrieme Lecon, 
pp. 80, 81. 

f Langford— Eng. Democracy, p. 10. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 109 

of many were found bearing the marks of violence; 
death by torture was denounced against the mur- 
derers, and strict search was made for them, but 
generally in vain, for the whole nation was in a 
conspiracy to screen them.* From the natural 
reaction of the oppressed against their tyrants — 
the intense and deathless hatred of the Saxons to 
feudalism, the pet institution of their conquerors — 
the dissensions which soon arose amongst the 
Norman monarchs themselves, inducing each party 
to offer the people greater privileges and wider 
freedom as the reward for their services — the 
undertaking of foreign wars, in which they evinced 
great courage — the slow amalgamation of the 
races, softening animosities and making their inte- 
rests common — the frequent manumission of serfs — 
who can wonder that the English made the base 
and cowardly John sign the Great Charter, that 
noble foundation on which so many liberties were 
founded ? "f" The people, assisted by a few barons, 
made the cruel, weak-headed, and bad-hearted 
John sign the Magna Charta at Runnymede, on 
the 15th day of June, 1215. 

The Magna Charta was a long piece of parch- 
ment, containing sixty-three clauses written in 
Latin — some respecting liberty, and others re- 
specting property. Some of the clauses respecting 
liberty were — that one weight and measure 
should be used throughout the country — that 
" every freeman should have full liberty to quit the 
kingdom and return to it, saving his allegiance, 
and unless it were in time of war" — that none 
should be condemned without trial — that justice 
should not be sold or deferred — and that u common 

* Macaulay — Hist, of England — Vol. I., Ch. 1, page 13. 
f Langford. 



110 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP 

pleas shall not follow our court, but shall be 
holden in some place certain." But perhaps the 
most important enactment of the charter was that 
which declared that none shall be condemned 
without trial, and that justice shall not be sold or 
deferred. Chapter xxix. reads thus : — " No free- 
man shall be taken, or imprisoned, or be disseised 
of his freehold, or his liberties, or free customs, or 
be outlawed, or exiled, or any otherwise destroyed ; 
nor will we not pass upon him, nor condemn him, 
but by careful judgment of his peers, or by the 
law of the land. We will sell to no man, we will 
not deny or defer to any man, either justice or 
right." 

Some of its provisions respecting property were, 
that a man at his death may leave his property to 
whomsoever he likes — if a man dies without a 
will, his family, and not the king, shall inherit — 
no officer of the crown shall use a man's horse and 
cart without his leave, <&c. &c. 

By this charter the laws of the old Saxon kings 
were epitomized and guaranteed — liberty both of 
person and property was established. But it must 
not be supposed that it was accepted by our mon- 
archs as a settled law, which they were bound to 
obey. Every opportunity was taken to evade its 
enactment, and in the next six reigns it under- 
went no less than thirty-five ratifications — a 
strong proof that the kings hated it, and that the 
people loved it, and were determined to have it ! 

The ancient Britons — the Romans — the Scan- 
dinavians — and the Normans, were combined for 
the production of the English race, and in that 
race all the prominent characteristics are blended, 
and yet distinctly marked. The Norman conquest 
gave us rulers, but not a people. Our language 



THE ENGLISH NATION. Ill 

Is a proof of this. Trench, in his analysis of our 
modern English, shows that, if we divide it into a 
hundred parts, sixty will be Saxon, thirty Latin, 
five Greek, and only five a combination of other 
languages, including Norman-French and French. 

The English nation may be said to have be- 
come thoroughly amalgamated and completed 
within one hundred years of the Conquest. For 
some time after the Conquest the Normans treated 
the poor English with the greatest cruelty and 
contempt. Such was the contempt with which 
they were treated, that ki the time of Richard I. 
the ordinary imprecation of a Norman "gentle- 
man " was, " May I become an Englishman!" His 
ordinary form of indignant denial was, " Do you 
take me for an Englishman ? " * But the two 
races which were such irreconcilable enemies — 
the Saxon hating the Norman with ail the fierce 
bitterness of a degraded foe, and the Norman de- 
spising the Saxon with all the contempt of an irre- 
sponsible lord or master — were, towards the end 
of this period, united in their demands, and were 
willing to shed their blood together for the attain- 
ment of their common liberties. 

* Macaulay— Hist, of England— Vol. I. Ch. 1, page 17. 



112 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 



CHAPTER IV. 

Manners and Customs, &c., of the English, from 1216 to 1399 — 
during the reigns of Henry III., the three first Edwards, and 
Richard II. 

Though the extensive expeditions of the Eng- 
lish on the continent and to the east in the 
Crusades caused some changes, yet the manners 
and customs which prevailed during this period 
were much the same as those described in the last 
chapter. The style of living amongst the wealthy 
was rudely magnificent, lavish, and lordly; an 
almost unlimited hospitality reigned in the houses 
of kings, and castles of the great barons. Some of 
the courts of the English kings were splendid and 
great; that of Richard II. is thus described by 
Stow : — " His royalty was such, that wheresoever 
he lay, his person was guarded by two hundred 
Cheshiremen ; he had about him thirteen bishops, 
besides barons, knights, esquires, and others ; in- 
somuch that ten thousand people came to the 
household for meat every day, as appeared by the 
messes told out of the kitchen to three hundred 
servitors." This king lived in a more magnificent 
and extravagant style than any of his predecessors 
or successors. He kept two thousand cooks ; and 
when he celebrated Christmas at Westminster 
Hall, the daily consumption was twenty-eight 
oxen, three hundred sheep, and fowls almost 
without number. When he came to the throne, 
the city fountains were made to flow with wine 
instead of water ; and the year after, at his coro- 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 113 

nation, four different sorts of wine were made to 
flow through the public channels. 

The feasts at the coronations of kings, the 
installations of prelates, the marriages of great 
nobles, and on some other occasions, were profuse 
in number of dishes ; the guests entertained some- 
times amounted to many thousands. / The coro- 
nation banquet of Edward III. cost a sum equal 
to £40,000 of our money. At the installation of 
Ralph, abbot of St. Augustine, at Canterbury, in 
1309, six thousand guests sat down to three thou- 
sand dishes, which cost a sum equal to £45,000 
present money. At the marriage-dinner of the 
Earl of Cornwall, in London, in 1243, thirty thou- 
sand dishes were served up. Matthew of Paris, 
in speaking of the marriage-feast of Alexander III. 
of Scotland and Margaret of England, held at 
York, in 1281, says — "If I attempted to describe 
the grandeur of this solemnity, the number of the 
illustrious guests, the richness and variety of the 
dresses, the sumptuousness of the feasts, the mul- 
titude of the minstrels, mimics, and others whose 
business it was to amuse and divert the company, 
my readers would think I was imposing on their 
credulity." f The manner of living amongst the 
great baroils is shown by the household accounts 
of the Earl of Lancaster, in 1313. In that year 
the earl expended a sum of money equivalent to 
£109,635 of our money. Wines being cheaper 
then, it would at the present time require a far 
greater sum than that to maintain an equal hos- 
pitality ; the quantity of wine consumed in the 
earl's establishment in that year was 471 pipes, or 
59,346 gallons. 

Towards the conclusion of this period this pro- 
fuse hospitality was on the decline; and the 



114 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

wealthy, instead of dining in the great halls with 
their dependants, began to dine in private parlours 
with a few familiar friends. This change, how- 
ever, was extremely unpopular, and subjected 
those who adopted it to much reproach. 

In the reign of Edward II. eleven o'clock in the 
morning was the most fashionable dinner-hour, 
six the supper hour. The dinner-time in the reign 
of Edward III. was about nine o'clock in the morn- 
ing, and supper-time at four in the afternoon. It 
was not till the reign of Richard II. that we read 
of the rich having breakfast ; in that reign we find 
that bread, wine, beer, beef, herrings, and brawn, 
were set upon the breakfast table. In serving up 
the dishes at meal-times, every thing was made to 
look as showy and grand as possible : the roasted 
pig was decorated with gold and silver leaf, jellies 
and pies were made into quaint figures to resemble 
angels, saints, &c. The grandest dish brought to 
the table was a roasted peacock, with all its 
feathers stuck on. Between the courses, repre- 
sentations of battles, sieges, ships, &c, were intro- 
duced for the amusement of the guests. 

In the reign of Edward III., the English were 
such monstrous gormandizers that they were for- 
bidden by law to have more than two courses at 
dinner ! Intemperance in eating and drinking 
rendered this law necessary — at least so thought 
the legislature — the public health was injured, 
and butchers' cattle had greatly diminished. 

The art of fattening cattle in winter time was 
then unknown. In autumn, when cattle were 
fattest, Englishmen killed cows and sheep, &c, 
enough to last them till the following spring. 
They managed to keep their meat so long by 
salting and pickling it. They had, however, fresh 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 1 1 5 

meat sometimes during winter; being fond of 
field-sports, they procured venison, hares, birds, 
fish, &c. The vegetables used at table in 
Edward II.'s reign, were carrots, parsnips, and 
cabbages. Potatoes were not known till the year 
1563, in the reign of Elizabeth. 

With respect to the drinks of this period, ale 
and cider satisfied the majority of the people; 
but the wealthy imported and consumed a great 
variety of foreign wines. 

We have already said that people had at least 
two meals a-day — dinner and supper. Besides 
these, people of rank had a kind of collation just 
before going to bed, called " the wines" consisting 
of delicate cakes and wine warmed and spiced, y; 
From a passage in Chaucer it would appear that 
they ate spiced condiments after their meals, as 
we take a dessert : — 

" There was eke wexing many a spice, 
As clove, gilofre, and licorice. 
Gin giber, and grain de Paris ; 
And many a spice delitable, 
To etan whan men rise fro table." 

It is evident that our forefathers who possessed 
wealth, knew something of the art of u good 
living." 

Great complaints were made by historians of 
the extravagance in dress during this period. 
The various and ridiculous fashions were very 
justly the subject of bitter reprehension from the 
satirists of the time. 

^HHenry III., whose monument is in Westminster 
Abbey, is represented as wearing a long and very 
full tunic, aiid a mantle fastened on the right 
shoulder — both devoid of ornament. The boots 
are, however, very splendid— illustrating the 



116 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

expression fretatus de auro ; and each square of 
the fret containing a lion or leopard. The cloth 
he wore is said to have been woven with gold ; 
on his head he wore a coronet, or small circle of 
gold, called in the language of that day a chaplet, 
or garland. In the thirteenth century, the 
materials for dress became more numerous and 
costly. Velvet is mentioned under the Latin 
name of villosa. In the early part of this period, 
the male costume consisted generally of a loose 
long tunic, chausses or stockings, drawers, and, 
when travelling, a supertotus or overall. Short 
dresses afterwards prevailed, with close-fitting 
hose and shoes. The shoes in the early part of 
this time fitted well to the foot, but afterwards 
assumed enormous long toes, which are repre- 
sented as suspended to the knees by chains or 
cords. We have already spoken of a law which 
was made to restrain excess in eating ; in 136$, 
sumptuary enactments respecting dress were in 
like manner passed in parliament, though we are 
told that some of those laws were utterly dis- 
regarded. " The squire endeavoured to outlive 
the knight, the knight the baron, the baron the 
earl, and the earl the very king himself" * Poor 
people were forbidden to wear silver and gold 
embroidery on their dresses ; and no subject was 
to use foreign cloth, because Edward III. wished 
to encourage the English cloth manufacture. In 
1331 two cloth-weavers from Brabant settled in 
York; before that time, only very coarse woollen 
cloth was made in this country — the finer sort 
was imported from Flanders. About this period 
the Scots had a rhyme, which ran thus: — 

* Quoted by Planche* in his Hist, of British Costume. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 1 1 7 

M Long beirds hertiless, 
Peynted hoods witless, 
Gay cotes graceless, 
Maketh Englonde thriftless." 

In the reign of Richard II. the vanity of the 
labouring class in their dress was so great that it 
was impossible to distinguish the rich from the 
poor, the high from the low, the clergy from the 
laity, by their appearance.* The greatest fop of 
the day was probably the king himself; he was 
therefore, like most fops and snobs, of little use in 
this world. He had a coat estimated at 30,000 
marks, the value of which must have arisen chiefly 
from the quantity of precious stones with which it 
was embroidered. It was also the fashion at this 
time to work letters and mottoes, &c, into the 
shape of leaves and other devices. Place Edward 
I. by the side of the royal fop, Richard II. What 
a contrast! The first Edward never wore his 
crown after the day of his coronation, and preferred 
the dress of the common citizen to the royal gar- 
ments of purple. Being one day asked why he 
did not wear richer apparel, he answered, with the 
consciousness of real worth, that it was absurd to 
suppose he could be more estimable in fine than 
in simple clothing. ft In Richard II/s reign, the 
dress of men was long, very luxurious, and often 
with open sides, and preposterously long-toed 
shoes. These shoes were called crackowes, bein^ 
supposed to come from Cracow. /The capuchon or 
head-dress in some cases resembled a simple cap 
or rounded hat, in others assumed very much the 
character of a turban. 

Just imagine a dandy of the fourteenth century ! 

* Knighton. 

f Hist, of British Costume by Planche\ p. 131. 



118 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP 

Camden's description of one is particularly ludi- 
crous, and we give it : — " He wore long pointed 
shoes, fastened to his knees by gold or silver 
chains; hose of one colour on one leg, and of 
another colour on the other. Short breeches, not 
reaching to the middle of the thigh ; a coat, one 
half white, and the other half black or blue ; a 
long beard, a silk band buttoned under his chin, 
embroidered with grotesque figures of animals, 
dancing-men, &c, and sometimes ornamented with 
gold, silver, and precious stones/ 

The origin of our words jacket and slop may be 
traced to this period. John of Graunt and the 
Black Prince introduced the jacket and paletot. 
Short jackets with long wide sleeves, called Pokys^ 
were worn both by masters and servants. The 
monk of Eversham ridiculed those sleeves as the 
devil's receptacles for whatever could be stolen 
and popped in. Some were so long and wide that 
they reached to the feet, others to the knees, and 
were full of slits. When servants were carrying 
pottage, sauces. &c, their sleeves were apt to get 
saturated with the contents. 

The dresses of women were as varied as those 
of the men. In the early part of this period they 
wore long dresses, and on their heads a sort of 
hood or cowl, called a gorget. John de Meun 
describes it as wrapped two or three times round 
the neck; and then, being fastened with a great 
quantity of pins, it was raised on either side the 
face as high as the ears. So long did women wear 
their gowns, that a poet of the thirteenth century 
compares the ladies of his day to peacocks and 
magpies: He says, "for the pies naturally bear 
feathers of various colours ; so the ladies delight 
in strange habits and diversity of ornaments. The 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 119 

pies have long tails that trail in the dirt ; so that 
the ladies make their tales a thousand times 
longer than those of peacocks and pies." Another 
satirist of that day advises the ladies, if their legs 
be not handsome, nor their feet small and delicate, 
to wear long robes trailing on the pavement to 
hide them; those, on the contrary, who have 
pretty feet, are counselled to elevate their robes, as 
if for air and convenience, that all who pass by 
may see and admire them ! In Edward I.'s reign 
there was a rational complaint against a very ugly 
species of wimple, called a gorget, which covered 
the chin, throat, and ears. Another complaint about 
this time is tight-lacing — the waists of women 
were pinched in to make them look very slim. 
Towards the end of this period women's dresses 
began to assume the fashion of modern gowns. 
" Aprons richly embroidered appeared, and the 
female costume of Edward's IIL's time would pass 
very well now ; the gown fitting elegantly to the 
bust, and of modern proportion, but without any 
crinoline.''" * The fashion of wearing daggers stuck 
through pouches, became very general amongst 
knights and gentlemen about the time of the third 
Edward ; and we may therefore fairly presume 
that the ladies then, as now, affected male attire 
in their riding-habits, with peculiar alterations, 
caprices of their own, which were in turn eagerly 
caught at and imitated by the fops and gallants of 
the day. f 

The ploughman in the " Canterbury Tales," 
rails at the clergy for riding glittering with gold 
upon high horses, gayer than any common knight 
might go — wearing golden girdles, and gowns of 

* Howitt's Pic. Hist, of Eng., pp. 479-80. 

f Planche— Hist, of Brit. Costume, pp. 170-1. 



120 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

scarlet and green, ornamented with cut-work. 
They also wore the long piked shoes, and were 
armed, even like the men of war, with broad 
bucklers and long swords, and so forth. He says, 
many priests had mitres embellished with pearls, 
like the head of a queen, and a staff of gold set 
with jewels. 

In the reign of Edward III., the military costume 
was changed from the chain mail of the Knights 
Templars to plated armour, which was much more 
heavy. 

The Scotch, except those in the Highlands, 
dressed much the same as the English did ; but 
the Welsh paid very little attention to dress. 

Linen was introduced by the Flemings in the 
reign of Henry III. ; before then the English wore 
woollen shirts. It was in this reign that aldermen 
were first allowed to wear gowns. In the time of 
the third Edward, Thomas Blanket, of Bristol, 
established looms for weaving the woollen cloths 
which still bear his name. 

In architecture, sculpture, and painting, great 
progress was made, especially in the two first- 
mentioned arts. " The more we contemplate the 
buildings of this period, the more we are struck 
with admiration at the wonderful powers of inven- 
tion possessed by the architects and workmen of 
the time. Wherever ornament was wanted, there 
it was ready, and always beautiful and appropriate. 
They possessed a keen perception of the beauties 
of nature, and hands capable of giving form to 
those perceptions."* A number of the best 
architects formed themselves into a company, and 
went from place to place as they were wanted ; 
they lived in movable huts, and called themselves 

* William Howitt, 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 121 

" Freemasons." Of the domestic buildings of the 
fourteenth century, many good specimens still 
remain. Many of them were built for defence ; 
hence the saying that u an Englishman's house is 
his castle," which at that time was literally true. 
They were mostly moated, and contained but few 
rooms, of which the hall was larger than the rest. 
In the reign of Edward III., castles were made 
more comfortable for the inmates than they former- 
ly were, and were adorned with beautiful windows. 
The " keep " was a separate building, The houses 
in London were mostly thatched with straw till 
the reign of Henry III., when it was ordered that 
all houses in the city should be covered with tiles 
or slates, particularly such as stood in the best 
streets, which were then very few when compared 
with modern London ; for where Cheapside now 
stands was a field, and from Temple-Bar to the 
village of Westminster was a country road, having 
gentlemen's houses adjoining it. 

Fir^s were not generally used in private houses 
during this period ; except for cooking, they were 
not thought needful. Chimneys were by no 
means common; and therefore fires in private 
rooms would have been a nuisance. The students 
of Oxford and Cambridge were not allowed to 
have fires till the reign of Henry VIII. When 
the students were cold, they had to run and 
warm themselves. It was not till the reign of 
Henry III. that coal was used as fuel instead of 
wood ; indeed, we find no mention of that useful 
mineral till then. A licence was granted to the 
people of Newcastle to dig coal ; but, in the next 
reign, a proclamation was issued forbidding its 
use as a public nuisance. 

Painted ceilings and walls in the houses of the 



122 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

rich prevailed before the time of the third Henry. 
Scripture and romantic subjects predominated in 
those decorations. The "Painted Chamber " at 
Westminster was embellished in this manner. 
At this time, the English had painted glass 
windows not only in churches, but in private 
houses. In different old illuminated MSS., we 
have specimens of the chairs, beds, reading- 
desks, and other furniture. The oldest chair in 
this country is probably that of Edward the 
Confessor, or so called, still used in Westminster 
Abbey as the coronation chair. Fine beds of 
black satin, of blue, red, and white silk, and 
black velvet, are mentioned in the works of old 
authors. The bed of Richard IIL's mother was 
of red velvet, embroidered with representations of 
ostrich feathers, which were of silver, and repre- 
sentations of the heads of leopards, which were 
of gold, with boughs and leaves coming out of 
their mouths. Many of the beds had testers 
and canopies, others had hangings of tapestry, 
illustrated in needlework with pictures of battles 
and great events, as well as scenes from the 
Scriptures, and from the favourite romances. 
Matthew of Paris informs us that Eleanor, wife of 
Edward I., covered the floor of her room with 
tapestry, at which there was no little scoffing. 
Forks were used in Italy as early as the year 
1330, but not until the seventeenth century in 
England. The same writer gives us a good idea 
of a cupboard of plate, which he tells us contained 
a cup of gold, six quart standing pots of silver, 
twenty-four silver bowls witli covers, a basin, a 
ewer, and a chasoir of silver. Silver and silver- 
gilt plate, dishes, chargers, salt-cellars, spoons, 
silver lavatories, spice-plates, knives with silver 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 123 

handles, and a fork belonging to Edward L, are 
frequently mentioned by old authors. Fire- 
screens standing on feet were in use in the reign 
of the first Edward, also ornamented andirous or 
fire-dogs. Clocks which struck and chimed the 
hour are mentioned at the close of the thirteenth 
century. In the early part of the reign of 
Edward L, there were only two clocks in England 
— one of which was placed over the gateway 
at Westminster, and the other in Canterbury 
Cathedral. Striking clocks were invented by 
Richard Wallingford, an English abbot of St. 
Albans. The pendulum was not used in clocks 
till three hundred years afterwards. It was 
invented by Huygens, a Dutchman, in 1662. 

The diversions of the English at this period, 
were much the same as those described in the last. 
In the feudal ages every Englishman who did not 
possess land to the value of forty shillings a-year, 
was required to qualify himself for a bowman. 
The practice of archery in the villages, from boy- 
hood upward, produced those famous bowmen who 
cleared the fields of Crecy and Poictiers of 
opponents. Towards the end of Edward III/s 
reign, the practice of archery was on the decline 
amongst the people. Rymer, in speaking of 
archery, says, " that art is now neglected, and the 
people spend their time in throwing stones, wood, 
or iron ; in playing at the hand-ball, foot-ball, or 
club-ball; in bull-baiting and cock-fighting, and 
in more useless and dishonest games." By the 
" dishonest games " we suppose is meant such 
games of chance as cross and pile. We read that 
Edward II. spent both time and money in these 
games, and that he used to borrow money of his 
barber and the usher of his chamber while at sush 



124 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

play. Wrestling for a ram was a favourite 
diversion — a wrestling-match of this kind, between 
London and Westminster, in the year 1222, ended 
in a regular bloody battle. 

In Richard IL's reign, cards were invented by 
Jaquemin Gringonneur, of Paris, to amuse Charles 
VI. of France, who was insane. But they do not 
appear to have been so early introduced into this 
country. Being drawn and painted by the hand, 
they were dear, and not in general use until the 
reign of Edward IV. The price of a single pack 
was eighteen shillings and eightpence — no small 
sum in those days. Originally, they were different 
from those in use at the present time. Their 
shape was square, and instead of suits of spades, 
clubs, hearts, and diamonds, their marks were 
rabbits, roses, pinks, and flowers of columbine. 
The figured cards were prettily devised — a rustic- 
looking man, grotesquely dressed, and standing in 
a strange attitude, with a pink by his side, sig- 
nified the knave of pinks or diamonds. A queen 
riding with a rabbit beside her, indicated the. queen 
of rabbits or clubs. 

Tournaments, hunting, dancing, pageants, and 
disguisings, were the diversions of the kings and 
"nobles," as well as the delight of the people 
whenever they could witness them. In that day 
the drama appeared under the form of " Mysteries 
and Moralities," or " Miracle-plays," which were 
acted in the churches and monasteries. Sacred 
passages and personages of the Scriptures were 
introduced in the most free and curious manner. 
Adam and Eve appeared ivithout the slightest aid 
from the draper or tailor, and this too without 
seeming to give rise to any scandal. Poor Noah 
had a terrible time of it to get his wife into the .. 




Football. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 125 

ark, and when he did succeed, she rewarded him 
with a sounding box on the ear, &c. &c. 

The Tragetours, or jugglers, gave much amuse- 
ment in the streets, and, according to Chaucer, 
legerdemain must have reached considerable per- 
fection, for he says the tragetours could make 
people believe they saw a boat come swimming 
into a hall — a lion walk in— flowers spring up as 
in a meadow — castles, apparently of solid lime and 
stone, appear, and then vanish again, &c. 

An ostentatious kind of gallantry, expressive 
of the profoundest respect and highest admiration 
of the beauty and virtues of the fair sex, was 
studied and practised by the martial barons, 
knights, and esquires. This gallantry was most 
shown at grand tournaments, at which the ladies 
appeared in their richest dresses. " The tourna- 
ments are attended by many ladies of the first 
rank and greatest beauty, dressed in party- 
coloured tunics. Their tippets are very short, 
their caps remarkably small, and wrapt about 
their heads with cords; their girdles are ornamented 
with gold and silver ; and they bear short swords, 
like daggers, before them, which hang across the 
stomach. They are mounted on the finest horses, 
with the richest furniture ; thus equipped, they 
ride from place to place in quest of tournaments, 
by which they dissipate their fortunes, and often 
ruin their reputation." * 

Sometimes knights would assert that the ladies 
whom they loved were superior in beauty and 
virtues to any others, and challenge all who dared 
to dispute that superiority, to meet them at a 
certain time and place to determine the important 
question by combat. These challenges were often 

* Knyghton. 



126 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

accepted, and produced tournaments, to which 
princes, knights, and ladies of different nations 
crowded. This romantic gallantry displayed it- 
self in peace and in war; and youthful knights 
fought as much, and sometimes a good deal more, 
for the honour of their belles as for their country. 
In 1379 a party of English and French cavalry 
met near Cherbourg, and when about to engage, 
Sir Lancelot de Lorres, a French knight, cried 
aloud that he had a more beautiful belle than any 
of the English, whereupon Sir John Copeland 
denied it, and ran his spear through the French- 
man's body, laying him dead at his feet. When 
Edward III. raised an army to assert his right 
to the crown of France, a great number of young 
Englishmen put patches upon their eyes, and 
made vows to their belles that they would not 
take them off till they had performed some feats 
in France to their honour. 

Chivalry declined in England during the reigns 
of John and Henry III., but revived under 
Edward I., who was one of the most accomplished 
knights of his time. The third Edward was also 
a lover of chivalry : he encouraged it as much as 
any man. It was this king who created the 
Order of the Garter, the most honourable military 
order in England. It consists of twenty-six 
knights, who are generally peers, of whom the 
king himself is the chief. They are so called, 
because they wear on the left leg a garter made of 
blue ribbon set with pearls, and inscribed with the 
motto, u Honi soit qui mal y pense" The origin of 
the order of the garter is disputed. A story 
prevails, that the Countess of Salisbury at a ball, 
happening to drop one of her garters, the king 
took it up, and observing some of the courtiers 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 127 

smiling, said with contempt the words just now 
mentioned. From this incident possibly arose the 
order of the garter. 

At the beginning; of this period the pope's power 
was at its height ; but towards the end it received 
a shock from which it never recovered — the days 
of the pope's power in England were numbered. 
Enormous was the sum of money which the holy 
court of Rome got from this country, in addition 
to the " Peter's pence :" the livings were given 
to infants, and to lazy, ignorant, and unprin- 
cipled Italians, who could not speak a word of 
English, and who carried out of the country 
the money arising from their benefices. From 
the arts of the priesthood, and the superstition 
of the people, the possessions of the church 
went on growing to such an extent, that they 
are said to have amounted to three-fourths of the 
property of the whole kingdom, and threatened 
to swallow up all its lands. To put a stop to this 
fearful condition of things, Edward I. passed his 
famous statute of mortmain in 1279, and thus 
arrested the progress of the papal avarice. The 
insatiable avarice and unbearable tyranny of the 
court of Rome gave such disgust in the fourteenth 
century, that a bold attack was made on it and its 
doctrines. John WyclifFe has the honour of being 
the first man in Europe who publicly called in 
question the doctrines which had passed as true 
and good for so many ages. When he died of 
palsy, at his rectory, the clergy assured the people 
that he was gone to eternal damnation, and that 
his last distemper was a visible judgment of heaven 
upon him, for his multiplied heresies and impieties ! 
When Greathead, bishop of Lincoln, would not 
bestow a benefice upon an infant, his holiness put 



128 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

himself into a furious passion, and swore by St. 
Peter and St. Paul that he would utterly con- 
found that old, impertinent, deaf, doating fellow, 
and make him the astonishment of the world. 
" What ! " he exclaimed, a is not England our 
possession, and its king our vassal, or rather our 
slave ? " 

From what Thomas Wykes says, when speaking 
of the civil wars in the reign of Henry III., we 
conclude that the morals of the nation were any 
thing but good. He says — " In these five years 
past, there have been so many battles, both by 
land and sea, so much slaughter and destruction 
of the people of England, so many devastations, 
plunderings, robberies, thefts, sacrileges, perjuries, 
treacheries, and treasons, that the nation hath lost 
all sense of distinction between right and wrong, 
virtue and vice/' All authors are agreed that 
corruption of manners was universal in that age, 
and the most eminent of them agree that the 
clergy were the cause of it. Enormous was the 
wealth drawn by Rome from many countries at 
that time ; this led to the most improvident extra- 
vagance and dissoluteness in that city, so as to 
originate the proverb, " The nearer to Rome, the 
farther from God." No doubt the celibacy of the 
priesthood made this state of things much worse. 
The corruption of the church, and the increase of 
knowledge amongst the people, were preparing 
the reformation. Every good author joins in 
denouncing the profligacy of the clergy, who were 
the " blind teachers of the blind." 

" Suche as can nat ysay their crede 
With prayer should be made prelates; 
Nother canne they the Gospel rede, 
Such should now weldin hie estates. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 129 

" There was more mercy in Maximine, 
And Nero, that never was gode, 
Than there is now in some of them 
When he hath on his furred hode. 

" They halowe nothing but for hire — 
Ne churehe, ne font, ne testement ; 
They layith out their large nettes 
For to takin silver and gold." 

Such is the evidence of Pierce Ploughman — and 
so he runs through their long catalogue of vices and 
vanities. Chaucer, too, often condemns the world- 
liness and vanity of the priests — for example : — 

" They hie on horse willeth to ride, 
In glitterande golde of grete arrai, 
Painted and portrid all in pride, 
No common knight maie go so gaie ; 
Chaunge of clothing every daie, 
"With golden girdles, grete and small." 

Roger Bacon, in speaking of the condition of 
the appointed teachers of the people, says — u It is 
believed by all wise men, that the times of Anti- 
christ are near at hand." 

If such were the morals and manners of the 
priesthood, we may form a pretty good idea of the 
morality of the people. The barons were brave, 
and affected great hospitality to those of their own 
rank ; but to the poor they were cruel and con- 
temptuous, haughty and oppressive. The ignorance 
and superstition which prevailed amongst all ranks 
till the time of good old WyclhTe and the Lollards, 
are almost incredible. For example — Pope Inno- 
cent VI, firmly believed Petrarch to be a magician, 
because he read Virgil. Pilgrimages were performed 
to distant shrines by all ranks, and the veneration 
for relics had become wonderful. Matthew of Paris 
describes Henry III., riding from St. Paul's 
church to Westminster, to which he had summon- 
ed all the " great men" of the kingdom, to see him 



130 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

carry a bottle of the real blood of Jesus, which he 
had received from the Knights-Templars at Jerusa- 
lem, under the seals and attestations of its 
genuineness of the patriarch, archbishops, and 
prelates of Palestine. u When the procession of 
all the barons, bishops, monks in thousands, and 
vast crowds of people, was ready to set forward, 
the king approached the sacred vial with fear and 
trembling, took it in both his hands, and, holding 
it up higher than his face, thus proceeded under a 
canopy, two assistants supporting his arms. In 
this manner he walked on through the roads, deep 
in mud, his eyes fixed on the vial, or on heaven."* 
The knowledge of political economy possessed 
by parliament in the famous reign of Edward III. 
was lamentably low. The topographical know r - 
ledge of the commons was ludicrous. They 
granted the king in 1371, £50,000, by a tax of 
22s. 3d. on each parish, supposing the number of 
parishes to be about 45,000 ; but, finding they 
were not one-fifth of that number, they had to 
alter the rate to £/> 10s. per parish. But this 
was not a greater mistake than that of the Eng- 
lish ambassador at Rome six years afterwards, 
who, finding that the pope had created Lewis of 
Spain prince of the Fortunate Islands, meaning the 
Canary Isles, immediately hurried home with all 
his suite to convey the alarming news, that the 
pope had given the British Isles to the king of 
Spain! The statute-books of this famous king- 
show the most absurd endeavours to disturb the 
freedom of trade, betraying very little knowledge 
of the principles of political economy. Wishing 
to raise a manufacturing system, it was forbidden 
to import woollen cloths before we could supply 

* Matthew of Paris. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 131 

the people with home-made goods. Money was 
prohibited from being carried out of the country. 
They were obliged to let in foreign cloth, or the 
people would soon have been naked; yet shortly 
afterwards they prohibited it again. A famine 
having taken place, they passed an act to keep 
down the price of all articles of food ; the conse- 
quence of which was, nobody would bring any 
such articles to market, and they were compelled 
to abolish that. Then they did the same thing by 
labour, fixing the rate of wages ; and yet when 
AVat Tylers party, in the following reign, wanted 
to regulate the price of land, the attempt was 
pronounced barbarous.* In the reign of Edward 
III. a law was passed to limit the wages of work- 
ing people. For haymaking and weeding, each 
person was to receive a penny a day — reapers of 
corn in August, threepence a day — master masons, . 
carpenters, and tilers, fourpence a day ; not 
masters, threepence a day — slabs and servants, 
three-halfpence a day — all without food. 

In those times few rich men undertook any great 
enterprise without first consulting the astrologer ; 
whilst the poor were subject to every species of 
terror from omens, apparitions, and the like. The 
administration of justice was notoriously corrupt, 
and the number of terrible bands of robbers was 
very great. The physical condition of the people 
was wretched. In Henry III.'s reign the wealthy 
were gradually rising into importance, but the 
peasantry were still bought and sold like cattle. 
In 1283, a slave was sold by the abbot of Dunstan, 
with all his family, for thirteen shillings and four- 
pence — " We . sold our slave by birth, William 

* Pict. Hist, of England— bj William Howitt ; pp. 450, 452. 



132 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Pike, with all his family, and received one mark 
from the buyer/' Men must then have been 
cheaper than horses. And in 1333, we read that 
a grant was made by a lord to a charity of several 
messuages, together with the bodies of eight 
natives and their offsprings. At the beginning 
of this period there were no regular shops — 
traders went about like hawkers, to sell their 
goods. Very few of the people could read and 
write. Even the majority of the monks could not 
read the Latin prayer-book, which they daily re- 
peated. In those times it was thought an act of 
great piety to say a prayer or two in Latin, 
though not a word was understood. 

We must say a little about the literature of this 
period. Latin was the almost universal language 
of scholars. Bacon wrote his works in Latin, so 
did most of the chroniclers. It is a strange fact, 
that while the Roman church continued the use of 
the Latin tongue, it had neglected and discouraged 
the reading of the great Roman and Greek writers. 
So little w r as the Greek language known, that we 
find Roger Bacon, in the thirteenth century, 
declaring that there were not more than three or 
four men in England who understood Greek, the 
Oriental languages, or who could pass the fifth 
proposition of Euclid's First Book — the familiar 
pons asinorum, or Asses' Bridge. The students, 
in those times knew nothing ; for we find that the 
archbishop of Canterbury, on a visit to Oxford, in 
1276, upbraided the students with such mistakes 
as these — ^ Ego currit, tu currit, currens est ego!" 
&c. At this time we are told that there were 
30,000 students at Oxford. Hume wisely asks 
what were these young men all about % We answer, 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 133 

nothing at all, but disputing without meaning or 
object — perplexing the plainest truths — and some- 
times proceeding from the so-called arguments to 
blows. The most absurd and diabolical things 
were often taught in colleges in those days. For ' 
instance, Nicholas de Ultricuria taught this pro- 
position in the university of Paris about the year 
1300 — " It may be lawful to steal, and the theft 
can be pleasing to God. Suppose a young gentle- 
man of good family meets with a very learned 
professor — meaning hijnself— who is able in a short 
time to teach him all the speculative sciences, but 
will not do it for less than £100, which the young 
gentleman cannot procure but by theft ; in that 
case theft is lawful. Which is thus proved. 
Whatever is pleasing to God is lawful. It is 
pleasing to God that a young gentleman learn all 
the sciences ; but he cannot do this without theft ; 
therefore theft is lawful and pleasing to God." 

A conclusive proof of the ignorance, stupidity, 
and superstition of the priesthood was, that on 
finding* a New Testament in Greek amongst the 
books of the reformers, they declared it was some 
new heretical language. Theology was thought 
more of than the Scriptures by the schoolmen, 
who in derision were called "Bible-doctors." 
Each of those " holy and learned " doctors had a 
band of followers, who seem to have been very 
fierce in their enmity to those not of their own 
clique. Brucker tells an amusing story of a 
scholastic who vented his spleen on Durandus, a 
celebrated doctor of the thirteenth century, by 
writing the following epitaph : — 

" Durus Durandus jacet hie sub marmore duro, 
An sit salvandus ego nescio nee quoque euro." 



] 34 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Which may be thus rendered: — 

" Entomb'd in marble pomp, 
Durandus lieth here ; 
But whether he be saved or lost, 
I neither know nor care." 

Aristotle's works were so blindly and foolishly 
admired, that at the university of Paris students 
were compelled to take a solemn oath to defend 
his opinions. In those times the clergy were not 
only almost the only lawyers, but also the doctors, 
though some of the laity now entered the pro- 
fession as a distinct branch, and very clever they 
were. We give a decided proof of their fitness 
for the office. John Gaddesden, who was edu- 
cated at Merton college, Oxford, and declared to 
be the grand luminary of physic, wrote a large 
and learned work on medicine, and such was its 
excellence that the illustrious title of "Medical 
Hose " was given to it. The reader may be pleased 
with a recipe or two from this remarkable work, 
so we give two — one for the cure of small-pox, and 
the other to cure epilepsy. "After this (the 
appearance of the eruption) cause the whole body 
of your patient to be wrapped in red scarlet cloth, 
or in any other red cloth, and command every 
thing about the bed to be made red. This is an 
excellent cure. It was in this manner I treated 
the son of the noble king of England, when he 
had the small-pox, and I cured him without 
leaving any marks." To cure epilepsy, Gaddesden 
orders the patient and his parents to " fast three 
days, and then go to church. The patient must 
confess ; he must have mass on Friday and 
Saturday, and then on Sunday the priest must 
read over the patient's head the gospel for 
September in the time of vintage, after the feast 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 135 

of the holy cross. After this the priest shall 
write out this portion of the gospel reverently, 
and bind it about the patient's neck, and he shall 
be cured." 

The greatest philosopher who lived in this period 
was Roger Bacon, who was born near Ilchester, 
in Somersetshire, in 1214. His great work, the 
u Opus Majus," contains the result of all his re- 
searches. In his treatise on optics — u De Scientia 
Perspectives " — he gives the mode of constructing 
spectacles, microscopic lenses, &c. He was the 
inventor of spectacles, and probably of gunpowder, 
which came into use in the reign of Edward III. 
Bacon was the martyr of science. The ignorant 
monks of his order, instead of benefiting by his 
discoveries, accused him of necromancy, and 
dealing with the devil. For years this man, a 
marvel of the age in which he lived, was kept in 
close confinement, and was not allowed to send 
his " Opus Majus " to any one but the pope at 
Rome, who procured him his liberty. - The good 
old man was, however, soon imprisoned again, 
and remained so for about twelve years ; after 
which, though old and broken down by his sufferings, 
he still continued to work like a true Briton till 
his death in 1292. 

WyclifTe and John Ball did much good ; they 
left the world better than they found it. Wyc- 
liffe not only put in active motion the principles of 
the Reformation, by his preaching and his public 
defences against the attacks of the authorities of 
the church, but he made those principles perma- 
nent by his translation of the Bible. Not that 
Wycliffe's was the first translation of the Scriptures 
into English. Sir Thomas More, in his "Dia- 
logues," says — "The hole Byble w r as, long before 



136 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Wickliffe's days, by vertuous and well-learned men 
translated into the English tong, and by good and 
godly people, with devotion and solemness well 
and reverently red." But the earlier translations 
of the Bible had remained in the libraries of 
monasteries, and owing to the scanty education of 
the people, and the conservative vigilance of the 
Romish church, had only been read and studied 
by a few. Wycliffe circulated the Scriptures, and 
in such a manner that they were never more to 
become rare and curious. Though he had not clear 
conceptions of the teachings of " The perfect Man" 
yet for that time he was a good scholar, an admirable 
Christian, and a liberal man. He had many 
enemies, but some good friends. He died on the 
last day of the year 1384. His followers were 
called Lollards. John Ball, the preacher to Wat 
Tyler's army, was probably a disciple of John 
Wycliffe. John Ball believed in and taught the 
gospel equality of man — that God is no respecter 
of persons — and that men should do unto others as 
they would have others do to them. The English 
had never heard these things before; they had 
never been allowed to think and act for themselves, 
but had been down-trodden as slaves and beasts of 
burden — and when the honest John Ball put 
these great truths into their heads, who can won- 
der at the result ? At the time Wat Tyler was 
elected captain of the 100,000 insurgents at 
Maidstone, John Ball, the chaplain, took for the 
text of his first sermon the good old rhyme — 

" When Adam delved, and Eve span, 
Who was then the gentleman ? " 

Froissart says that the people, " of whom there 
be more in England than in any other realm, 
loved John Ball, and said that he said the truth/' 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 13? 

Towards the end of this period, eminent authors 
began to write their works in their native tongue, 
instead of in Latin. In Italy, Dante had set the 
example, Froissart had done it in French, and now 
our great poets did the same. " In the course of 
the fourteenth century, the Anglo-Saxon gradually 
changed into what may be called the English lan- 
guage, and forced its way into the courts of justice, 
from which it had been excluded almost 300 years. 
That animosity was now extinguished which had 
long subsisted between the posterity of the Nor- 
mans and of the Anglo-Saxons, who were now in 
a great measure consolidated into one people* 
The Normans, who were engaged in agriculture, 
trade, and manufactures, found it necessary to 
speak the language of the multitude, into 
which they introduced many French words and 
idioms. Besides this, Chaucer, Gower, and 
several others, composed a number of volumes 
in English ; and, being men of learning, bor- 
rowed many expressions from the Greek, Latin, 
Italian, and French languages, with which they 
enriched their own. But the mode of spelling 
was unsettled, and very different from the modern. 
Several words were then in common use which are 
now become obsolete ; and the meaning of several 
words was very different from what it is at present. 
A knave, for example, signified a servant, in 
opposition to a freeman : and sometimes a male,' 
in opposition to a female : " The time is come" 
says Chaucer, " and a knave child she bare" Its 
modern meaning is well known.* Previous to the 
third Edward's reign barristers pleaded in French ; 
and therefore,, when a person was tried, he did not 
know a word about his accusation— indeed, the 

* Adams— New Hist, of Great Britain, p. 120. 



138 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

jury were often equally ignorant of what the 
pleader had been saying. When the king attained 
his fiftieth birthday, to please his subjects, he 
granted that all pleadings in court should thence- 
forth be made in English. We have already 
given an extract from Chaucer, and another from 
Robert Langlande, who wrote a famous satirical 
allegory against persons of all professions, called 
"The Vision of Pierce Ploughman," which is 
usually considered the first English poem ; we give 
another from Wicliffes Bible, Luke xv. 11, 12 — 
u A man had twey sons, and the younger of hem 
seide to the fader, geve me the porcioun of cattei 
that fallith to me." 
f The great poet of this period was Geoffrey 
Chaucer, who was born in London in the year 
1328. He was brother-in-law of John of Gaunt. 
Because he attached himself to the good old John 
Wicliffe, the clergy became his enemies, and were 
the cause of his leaving England to live in exile ; 
upon his return to this country he was committed 
to prison. He died in 1400. The great poem of 
Chaucer is the " Canterbury Tales," which for 
spirit, humour, and knowledge of the enjoyment of 
Mfe, rank next to Shakespeare. They are brimful 
of vigour, beauty, and subtlety — they sparkle, burn, 
and laugh on every page. He gives us the most 
"rivid picture of his time, and all the varied 
characters amongst whom he lived. He had a 
buoyant, genial spirit, and his own share of deep 
griefs and sorrows. Truly is he called the father 
of English poetry. 

In those times the chief articles of export were 
only sold in certain places; those places being 
sometimes on the continent, and sometimes at 
home. Edward II. ordered that all such articles 



THE ENGLISH NATION, 139 

as wool, sheepskins, and leather, should not be 
carried as heretofore to places in Brabant, Flan- 
ders, and Artois, but to Antwerp only. In 1348, 
when Calais was captured by the English, Edward 
III. made it the staple ; and five years afterwards 
removed it again, and ordered that exports should 
be sold in certain places in England, Ireland, and 
Wales. When our kings wanted to raise money 
on tolls, they proclaimed a fair in Westminster, or 
in some other place, and compelled all the trades- 
men within a certain distance to shut up their 
shops and carry their goods thither. Matthew of 
Paris tells us, that when Henry III. held a fair at 
Westminster, it lasted for a fortnight — that the 
weather was dreadfully wet and cold — that the 
goods were drenched and spoiled — and that the 
traders were obliged to eat their victuals standing 
deep in the mud and wet. A fair at St. Giles's* 
Hill, near Winchester, continued for sixteen days, 
and all trade was prohibited within seven miles. 
Immense crowds of all ranks from all parts flocked 
to it. We are told that men and women slaves 
were publicly sold in these fairs like beasts. The 
condition of merchants must have been truly piti- 
able in those days. It was not till the year 1303 
that foreign merchants were permitted to come 
and go as they liked, and reside under the proteo 
tion of the English laws ; before then they were 
obliged to sell their goods within forty days after 
their arrival. 

One of the most useful and creditable transac*- 
tions of Edward III. was the issue of gold coin- 
age. The coins of England till this period were 
of silver, chiefly in the form of marks and pennies. 
A mark was two-thirds of a Tower pound, which 
was not a real coin, but a pound weight of silver 



140 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

coins. The king struck florins of gold, which 
were ordered to pass for six shillings each, and 
the halves and quarters in proportion. Finding, 
however, that he had rated these pieces too high, 
he coined the gold noble of six shillings and eight- 
pence, and recalled the florins to his treasury. 

With regard to the music of this period we can 
only speak historically, for we have no proofs of 
the actual written music till the fifteenth century. 
We do, however, know something about the min- 
strels — we know that they generally composed 
their own music and sang it; and hence they 
were the welcome guests at all the great houses. 
We have said before that every king and great 
baron kept his train of minstrels, who composed 
songs, and sang them to their harps at the table. 
Matilda, queen of Henry I., was so fond of music 
that she not only expended all her revenues upon 
them, but oppressed her servants to pay the min- 
strels.* Eigordus says : — " The courts of princes 
are filled with crowds of minstrels, who extort 
from them gold, silver, houses, and vestments, by 
their flattering songs." The harp was the favou- 
rite instrument, but there were others. In a work 
of the time, quoted by Sir John Hawkins, there 
are mentioned the following musical instruments — 
the organ, the harp, the sawtry, the lyre, the cym- 
bal, the sistrum, the trumpet, the flute, the pipe, 
the tabor, the nakyre, and several others. Hand 
organs of a rude construction were already known, 
and to be seen in the streets of cities; but much 
oftener the pipe, the tabor, the drum, the fiddle, 
and even the harp, accompanying the feats of 
dancing-dogs, bears, and monkeys. 

There is no nation which has shown such true 

* William of Malmsburj. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 141 

valour, such admirable courage, as the English ; 
but we are sorry to say that none has shown so 
little mercy abroad. For example, what could be 
more dastardly, cruel, and fiendish, than the treat- 
ment of David, brother to Llewellyn, the last native 
king of the Welsh — and of Wallace, regent of 
Scotland ? David was betrayed into the hands of 
the English, and in the following month Edward I. 
brought the case of the capture before a parlia- 
ment, hastily and irregularly summoned at Shrews- 
bury. Shameful to say, that parliament obsequi- 
ously assented to whatever the king described as 
just and necessary. The consequence was, that 
they condemned the Welsh prince to be dragged 
by a horse to the place of execution — to be hung — 
to have his bowels burnt — to be quartered — and 
to have his limbs hung up in different places. 
This disgusting and fiendish sentence was not only 
carried into effect, but served for many years as a 
precedent in cases of high treason. Sir William 
Wallace, one of the bravest men that ever lived, 
whose valour and magnanimity deserved a very 
different treatment at the hands of a brave and 
martial king like the first Edward, was taken to 
London in chains as a traitor, though he had never 
acknowledged Edward as his sovereign, and owed 
him no fealty. Upon the arrival of Wallace in 
London, crowds assembled to gaze at him. He 
was conducted on horseback to Westminster, and 
in Westminster Hall was insulted by being crowned 
with laurel at the bar, because he had been reported 
to have said that he ought to be crowned there. 
He was condemned as a traitor, and executed 
with every circumstance of ignominy at the Elms, 
in West Smithfield, on the 23rd of August 1305. 
Thereto he was drawn at the tails of horses ; and 



142 MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS OF 

after being hanged on the gallows, while he yet 
breathed his bowels were taken out and burnt 
before his face. His head was then struck off, 
his body divided into quarters, and then exposed. 
A quarter of his body was exposed at Newcastle, 
another at Berwick, a third at Perth, and the 
fourth at Aberdeen. So much did the English, in 
those days, fail to perceive the everlasting infamy 
attendant on the unworthy treatment of the real 
nobles of our race — the intrepid defenders of the 
liberties of their country! Froissart, who does 
justice to the bravery and virtues of the English, 
blames them for their insolent and disgusting 
behaviour to people of other nations. The Scotch 
appear to have had a similar character. 

Anthony Beak, bishop of Durham, merits notice 
for the singularity of his character. He made a 
point of always rising immediately after his first 
sleep — he said u that it w T as beneath a man to turn 
himself in bed." Herein we admire the man, but 
for his other words and deeds we have only a 
smile. He once gave £40 sterling for forty fresh 
herrings — at another time he ordered a piece of 
cloth to be cut into horse-cloths, which cloth had 
been proverbially said to be " too dear for the 
bishop of Durham." 

At the coronation of Henry III. the people were 
forbidden to appear in public without a white fillet 
round their heads in honour of his coronation ! 

Anne, wife of Richard IL, was a woman of most 
excellent heart, great piety, and a fervent promoter 
of the Reformation. At her death, Thomas Arun- 
del, bishop of Ely, and afterwards archbishop of 
Canterbury, preached a sermon, in which, according 
to Rapin, he praised the queen for reading the 
Scriptures in the vulgar tongue. And yet this 



THE ENGLISH NATION, 143 

very Arundel was the first to procure an act for 
burning heretics ; that is, those who read the Bible 
in English as did queen Anne, and by reading it 
came to think differently from himself on some 
points ! 

"In 1316, on accouut of a great famine, the 
parliament limited the price of provisions. An ox 
cost two pounds eight shillings ; a fat hog, ten 
shillings; a sheep, three shillings and sixpence; a fat 
goose, sevenpence-halfpenny ; a fat capon, sixpence ; 
a fat hen, threepence; two chickens, threepence; 
four pigeons, threepence; two dozen eggs, three- 
pence. The rates affixed by parliament were inferior 
to the usual market prices, in those years of famine 
and mortality of cattle ; and these commodities, in- 
stead of a third, had really risen to a half, of the pre- 
sent value. But the famine at that time was so con- 
suming, that wheat was sometimes sold for above 
four pounds ten shillings a quarter ; a certain proof 
of the wretched state of agriculture in those ages."* 
In the next reign, that of Edward III., wheat was 
three shillings and fourpence per quarter ; a fat ox 
was worth sixteen shillings ; a sheep, one shilling 
and twopence; a hog, three shillings and four- 
pence ; a goose, twopence-halfpenny ; a gallon of 
ale, one penny ; a pair of shoes, fourpence ; broad 
cloth, one shilling and fourpence per yard. 

The following inventions, &c, date from this 
period. The mariner's compass, invented by Mur- 
phy, a Dutchman. It was greatly improved in 
the reign of Edward I. by a citizen of Naples, 
named Flavio de Gioia. Gunpowder, invented by 
Roger Bacon, but was little known till Schwartz, 
a monk of Cologne, brought it into use, 1330. 

* New Hist, of Great Britain by Adams, p. 121. 



144 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Cannons were invented about six years afterwards, 
and were first used at the battle of Cressy. Booms 
and mortars were invented about the same time. 
The art of making paper from rags was brought 
over to England from the East by some of the 
crusaders, who also introduced windmills. Leaden 
pipes were first used. In the reign of Edward III,, 
John Van Eyck, a Dutchman, accidentally dis- 
covered that his colours would mix with linseed 
oil better than with water, hence he was the first 
who painted in oil. In the reign of Richard II., 
drafts for money bills of exchange were invented 
by the Lombards, Italian merchants, who had 
settled in a place since called Lombard-street, 
London. In this reign, too, was introduced 
the fashion of ladies riding on side-saddles, after 
the example of the Princess Ann of Bohemia. 

Edward III. assumed the title of King of France, 
which our monarch s until lately retained. It was 
in 1340 that the king took the title, which he 
used in all public acts, and quartered the arms of 
France with his own, adding the motto — Dieu et 
mon droit 

Edward I. ordered that when he died his heart 
should be cut out* and sent to Palestine. 

Edward II. was the first English king deposed 
by the people. 

In the reign of Henry III. guinea-fowk were 
introduced into this country from Guinea in 
Africa. 

In Edward II.'s reign the interest of money was 
as high as forty-five per cent. In the same reign 
earthenware was introduced. 

Edward 1. added Wales to England, divided it 
into twelve counties, and placed a sheriff in each, 
according to the custom observed in England. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 145 

He also formed the chief towns into corporations, 
made his eldest son " Prince of Wales," and in 
some measure prevailed upon the Welsh to adopt 
fixed residences and English customs. Ever since 
then the eldest son of the royal family has been 
called the Prince of Wales. In this king's reign, 
too, the Scotch regalia and crown jewels were 
brought to England — also the great stone upon 
which the kings of Scotland sat when they were 
crowned. The stone was taken from Scone near 
Perth, and sent to Westminster, where it was 
framed, and has been used as the coronation chair 
of England ever since, 

In the time of Edward III. the Speaker of the 
House of Commons was first appointed. The 
Speaker's business is to sit as president, and keep 
order, to read the bills, to put the questions to the 
house, to adjourn it, and so on. The Doctors' 
Commons and the Heralds' College were erected 
in this reign. The college of civilians is called 
the Doctors' Commons, because the students 
used to " common " or dine together, like 
the collegians of Oxford and Cambridge. The 
object of the Heralds' College is to decide all 
matters pertaining to heraldry. It was in this 
reign, too, that the Admiralty Court, and the 
Exchequer Chamber Court, were established ; the 
former to decide all maritime controversies, and to 
try all offences committed on the open sea, and 
the latter being a court of equity to correct errors 
made in other courts. 

The title of duke was introduced by the third 
Edward. Edward the Black Prince was created 
by his father " Duke of Cornwall," which title the 
Prince of Wales has inherited ever since. 

Eichard II. introduced the title of marquis* 



146 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

The governors of frontier cities and provinces 
were called marquises. By frontier cities and 
provinces is meant, cities bordering on an enemy's 
country — thus, while Scotland and Wales were 
independent countries, the border towns and 
lands were called the marches of Scotland and 
Wales, Marche is a French word, and means a 
limit or boundary. 

The public officers, the Champion of England, 
and the Lord High Admiral, were created in the 
reign of the second Richard. The duty of the 
Champion of England is this : on the king's 
coronation day to ride up Westminster Hall on 
a white horse in full armour, to proclaim the king 
by his usual titles; he then throws down his 
gauntlet or iron glove, challenging any one to 
pick it up and fight with him, who does not 
believe the monarch to be lawful heir to the 
crown. The duties of the Lord His;h Admiral 
are to take cognizance off all offences committed on 
the seas, the management of all maritime affairs, 
and the direction of the royal navy. 

Crockery- ware was invented in the time of 
Edward II. 

At the battle of Cressy, the Black Prince slew 
the King of Bohemia ; and having taken off the 
king's helmet, which had on it three ostrich 
feathers, and the motto * Ich dien " — put it on hi3 
own head, and every Prince of Wales has used the 
same crest ever since. 

The police force of the kingdom, during the 
period under consideration, was far from being 
good ; for we read that when the King of Cyprus 
paid a visit to England in the reign of Edward III., 
he was robbed and stripped on the highway — so 
were his servants. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 147 

In the thirteenth century we find mention made 
of the stocks, to punish unruly people. 

The greatest novelty introduced into the civil 
government during the reign of Richard II., was 
the creation of peers by patent : Lord Beauchamp 
of Holt was the first peer advanced to the House 
of Lords in this manner. 

Windsor Castle was built in 1386, by Edward 
III. His method of conducting the work may 
serve as a specimen of the condition of the people 
at that time. Instead of engaging workmen by 
contracts and wages, he ordered that every county 
in England should send him a certain number of 
masons, tilers, and carpenters. 
^ Wat Tyler and his fame deserve notice. Rich- 
ard II., being a most extravngant man, asked the 
parliament for more money than they would grant 
him ; the result w r as the fatal capitation-tax,, which 
threw the whole country into a convulsion. This 
was a tax of three groats per head on every 
male and female above fifteen years of age. This 
poll-tax was the drop to the full cup. The 
people were already writhing under the continued 
exactions for the French w r ars, &c, and this 
tax drove them to desperation. One of the col- 
lectors of the tax at Dartford, in Kent, went 
to the house of one Wat Tyler, or Walter the 
Tyler, and demanded the tax for a daughter 
of Wat, whom the mother contended was under 
fifteen, the age fixed by law. The insolent tax- 
gatherer declared he would prove that ; and was 
proceeding to the grossest outrage, when Wat 
came running in at the outcries of his wife and 
daughter, and knocked out the scoundrel's brains 
with his hammer. The neighbours applauded 
Wat's courage, and vowed to stand by him; — - 



148 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

"for," says the chronicler, "the rude officers 
had in many places made the like trial." The 
news spread like lightning, and very soon he was 
at the head of 100,000 men. The issue of the 
rising is well known : relying on the promises and 
oaths of a weak king and a perfidious court, their 
leader was slain by Sir William Walworth, and 
the people dispersed. Yet the demands of the 
rebels (as they are called) are curious and worthy 
of note : — Abolition of slavery ; freedom of com- 
merce in market-towns, without tolls or imposts ; 
fixed rents, instead of the old service rendered by 
the tenant to his landlord ; and, finally, the expul- 
sion of the Flemings. 

There was a very great improvement in the 
condition of the people in this period compared 
with the last. One of the laws that tended to im- 
provement was, that every man who could con- 
trive to live a year and a day in any town, became 
a freeman. 

The House of Commons dates its origin from 
this period. In the year 1295, in the. twenty- 
third year of Edward I., parliaments first began to 
meet regularly, and they have continued to do so 
ever since. Our first M.Ps. did not like the 
office — many even avoided it. The greater part 
of them, being rude in manner and speech, knew 
they would be scorned and insulted by the proud 
aristocracy. The contempt with which they were 
treated by the vain lords compelled them to sit 
apart, and this was the deciding cause of their 
becoming a distinct house — the House of Commons. 
The democracy — the commons of England — made 
slow but unmistakable progress. Every oppor- 
tunity was seized by the people to enlarge and in 
crease their political power. Though in the House 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 149 

of Commons there is much room for improvement 
even now ; yet, in about four and a half centuries, 
it has risen to the noblest position of any senate 
the world ever saw. 

Such is a picture of the people of England in. 
the fourteenth century. In arms they had won 
eternal and unrivalled fame ; in poetry, literature, 
and art, they had made brilliant advances. Their 
churches w£re piles of glorious architecture ; in 
poetry, they had a Chaucer; in architecture, a 
Wykeham ; in philosophy, a Bacon and a Gros- 
teste ; Wycliffe had made the Bible common 
property, infusing new life into religion, which 
penetrated the cottage and the dwelling of the 
industrious citizen. In the constitution, the Great 
Charter had been confirmed, as well as many 
excellent statutes, restraining the royal and 
baronial power, and extending that of the people. 
Gunpowder and cannon had been employed in 
warfare, making strong castles useless. Manufac- 
tures had been introduced by the noble queen 
Philippa of Hainault. Gardens of culinary vege- 
tables, of medicinal herbs, and of flowers, as well 
as pomaria, or orchards, became general. Vine- 
yards were neglected, and were running to waste. 
As a whole, it must be pronounced a distinguished 
and progressive era, which did its duty to the 
common country and to posterity, but fell short 
in the two important domains of morals and of 
humanity.* 

* William Howitt. 



150 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 



CHAPTER V. 

Manners and Customs of the English from 1399 to 1485 ; during the 
reigns of Henry IV., Henry V., Henry VI., Edward IV., Ed- 
ward V., and Richard III. 

A well-known writer has truly said : — " When 
a country continues to be inhabited by the same 
people, living under the same government, pro- 
fessing the same religion, and speaking the same 
language, as the people of Britain did at this 
period, the changes in their manners, customs, 
virtues, vices, language, dress, diet, and diversions, 
are slow, and almost imperceptible. These changes 
are, however, like the motion of the shadow on 
the sundial, real, and in process of time become 
conspicuous. If the heroic Henry V. were now to 
rise from the dead, and appear in the streets of 
London, mounted on his war-horse, and clothed 
in complete armour, what astonishment would he 
excite in the admiring multitude ! How much 
would he be surprised at every object around 
him? If he were conducted to St. Paul's, he 
would neither know the church nor understand 
the service ; he would believe himself to be in a 
eity and amongst a people that he had never 
seen."* 

The English people of the period under con- 
sideration were very different from those described 
in the last chapter. The invention of printing, 
the progress of new ideas in religious and political 
doctrines, the gradual abolition of villanage, were 
preparing for them the most complete revolution 

* Pic. Hist, of England. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 151 

of mind and manners the world had ever witnessed. 
The introduction of Greek literature, the promul- 
gation of the great, grand, and noble principles of 
the Scriptures, and the spreading of knowledge 
among the people, were destined inevitably to pro- 
duce an enlarged and exalted standard of feeling 
and opinion, and to work a thorough change in 
the ideas of England. In the last chapter we 
observed, that the morality of the clergy and the 
people was very loose ; we find it still looser in 
the fifteenth century. To what cause are we to 
attribute this declension ? To what but the de- 
cline of chivalry? The causes just mentioned 
were yet too recent to have produced much effect 
on morals and manners. Chivalry, one of the 
most remarkable characteristics of the middle 
ages, began to decline in the fifteenth century; 
people of all ranks were then too seriously engaged 
in real combats to give much attention to the 
sham fights in the lists, or gaudy bravery of the 
tournament Caxton exclaimed—" The days of 
chivalry are gone ! Oh, ye knyghtes of Englande,. 
where is the custome and usage of noble chyvalry 
that was used in those days ? What do ye now 
but go to the baynes and play at dyse? How 
many knyghtes ben ther now in England, that 
have thuse and thexercise of a knyghte ? That is 
to wite, that he knoweth his horse and his horse 
him." And honest William Caxton hoped, by the 
reading of romances which he printed in the little 
chapelry at Westminster, to reawaken in their 
hearts the dying fires of chivalry. "Leve this, 
leve it, and rede the noble volumes of St. Graal, 
of Lancelot, of Galaad, of Trystram, of Perse 
Forest, of Percyval, of Gawayn, and many mor : 
ther shall ye see manhode, curtosye, and gentyl- 



152 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP 

ness." Vain hope ! the light of chivalry waned 
and died out, never again to be rekindled in this 
world. 

But though the spirit of chivalry was gone for 
ever, the forms of it yet remained ; and tourna- 
ments were still celebrated when actual war did 
not offer more serious opportunities for the 
exercise of arms. Henry V. of England, and 
James I. of Scotland, were renowned for their 
skill in tilting, as well as for all knightly arts. 
Kings still granted royal protections to foreign 
princes and nobles to come hither and joust with 
our knights. Occasionally, too, there were great 
tournaments, in which as many as thirty or forty 
knights assembled on either side, and attacked 
each other with spear and battle-axe, till the joust 
became a real battle. 

The great barons still kept up a sort of rude 
state, with great retinues of soldiers and serving- 
men in their halls and castles, which yet frowned 
with watchtowers and portcullises; and from whose 
ramparts grim warders looked down upon draw- 
bridge, and moat, and guarded outposts. The 
time had not yet arrived when they could dispense 
with privy counsellors, marshals, treasurers, stew- 
ards, secretaries, heralds, seneschals, pursuivants, 
pages, guards, and trumpeters. They still retained 
their bands of minstrels, their jesters, their 
buffoons, their tumblers, and all sorts of ministers 
to their amusement. In their style of living there 
was a rude abundance and prodigality, which was 
far from refined. They had four meals in the day : 
breakfast at seven, dinner at ten, supper at four 
in the afternoon, and a meal called the u livery," 
which was taken just before going to bed. The 
common people were much later in their hours of 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 153 

of eating. They breakfasted at eight, dined at 
twelve, and supped at six. The fashionable hours 
of the present day are almost precisely those of 
the u common people " then, if we call the twelve 
o'clock dinner a luncheon, and the supper at six a 
dinner. So does one age reverse the habits of 
another ! 

The accounts which have come down to us of 
supplies of the tables of the nobility in this cen- 
tury, as presented in the " Household Book of the 
Percys," is something startling. The breakfast of 
the Earl and Countess of Northumberland was, 
" first, a loaf of bread in trenchers, two manchetts, a 
quart of beer, a quart of wine, half a chyne of 
mutton, or a chyne of beef boiled/' The livery, 
or evening collation for the lord and lady, was 
equally abundant ; having dined and supped, be it 
remembered, " first, two manchetts, a loaf of 
household bread, a gallon of beer, and a quart of 
wine/' which was warmed and spiced. Though 
we cannot suppose them to have got through half 
this quantity, the whole history of the age shows 
that the higher classes were addicted to profuse, 
if not what we should in this day call good, living. 
The dinner-tables of the rich were loaded with 
huge pewter dishes filled with salted beef, mutton, 
and butchers' meat of all kinds : venison, poultry, 
sea-fowls, wild-boar, wild- fowls, game, fish, &c. ; 
and they were, moreover, luxurious in pies and 
baked meats of many sorts. The sideboards 
were plentifully furnished with ale, beer, and the 
wines of Spain and France, which w T ere handed to 
the guests as often as called for, in silver, pewter, 
or wooden cups, by the marshals, grooms, yeomen, 
and waiters of the chamber, who were ranged in 
regular order of precedence behind the master 



154 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

of the house and his guests. Yet amid all this 
show and profusion, the lords, no less than the 
servitors, used their fingers instead of forks, which 
were not yet invented. Though they sat down to 
dinner at ten in the forenoon, yet they seldom 
rose till one, thus spending three of the best hours 
of the day in sheer gormandizing. Meantime, 
the company was entertained by the songs and 
harps of the minstrels, the jests of the fool, the 
tricks of jugglers, and the tumbling and capering 
of dancers. After each course came in what they 
called suttleties — figures in pastry representing 
men, women, beasts, birds, &c, set on the table to 
be admired, but not to be touched ; each figure 
had attached to it a label, containing some witty 
or wise saying, whence their name. 

The monks and secular clergy are reported to 
have been especial lovers of the table. The monks 
in rich monasteries lived even more fully and 
richly than any order of men in the kingdom. 
The cook was usually one of the brethren who, for 
his knowledge of the cuisine, was elevated. to that 
office, and was held in high honour. The historian 
of Croyland speaks in raptures of brother Lawrence 
Chateres, the cook of that monastery, who, 
" prompted by the love of Grod and zeal for reli- 
gion, had given £40 — £400 of our money — for the 
recreation of the convent with the milk of almonds 
on fish-days." Almonds, milk of almonds, sugar, 
honey, and spices, appear to have been plentiful in 
these monkish refectories, and these dainties were 
often adorned with gold-leaf, powder of gold, and 
brilliant pigments. 

The secular clergy celebrated in the churches 
five times in the year what they plainly called 
P glutton-masses." Early in the morning the 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 155 

people flocked in, bringing all sorts of roasted and 
boiled meats, substantial viands, and strong drinks, 
and, as soon as the mass was ended, they all fell 
to in right earnest, and finished the day in unbound- 
ed riot and intemperance, till the feast degene- 
rated into an orgie. The clergy and people of dif- 
ferent parishes vied with each other in their endea- 
vours to have the greatest glutton-mass, and to 
devour the greatest quantity of meat and drink in 
honour of the Holy Virgin ! * 

The hospitality of all ranks, but particularly the 
wealthy, was at this period sufficiently remarkable. 
The castles of the powerful barons were capacious 
palaces, daily crowded with numerous retainers, 
who were welcome to their plentiful tables. 
" Neville, Earl of Warwick, was ever held in 
great favour by the commons of the land, on 
account of his hospitality in all places wherever he 
went; and, when he came to London, he kept 
such an house, that six oxen were eaten at a break- 
fast, and every tavern was full of his meat ; for 
who that had any acquaintance in that house, he 
should have as much sodden and roast as he 
might carry upon a long dagger." f No fewer 
than 30,000 people are said to have lived daily at 
this earl's expense in his different manors and 
castles. It is probable that such men as Warwick 
kept a multitude of retainers, not so much through 
real generosity, as through a desire of increasing 
the number and attachment of their followers, on 
which, in those turbulent times, their dignity and 
even their very safety depended. Though these 
retainers did not constantly reside with the families 
of their lords, yet they wore their liveries and 

* Howitt's Priests and Priestcraft, 
f Stowe. 



156 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

badges, feasted in their halls, swelled their retinues 
on all great occasions, attended them on their 
journeyings, and followed them into the field of 
'battle. So great was the number of retainers who 
acknowledged fealty to some great chieftains, that 
they set the laws at defiance, became formidable 
to their king, and terrible to their fellow subjects. 

The English were remarkable in this period, 
among the nations of Europe, for the absurd 
practice of swearing in conversation. The Count 
of Luxemburg, accompanied by the Earls of 
Warwick and Stafford, visited the Maid of Orleans 
in her prison at Rouen, where she was chained to 
the floor, and loaded with irons. The Count, who 
had sold her to the English, pretended that he had 
come to treat with her about her ransom. Viewing 
him with just resentment and disdain, she cried — 
*{ Begone ! You have neither the inclination nor 
the power to ransom me." Then turning her eyes 
towards the tw^o earls, she said — " I know that you 
English are determined to put me to death, and 
imagine, that after I am dead you will conquer 
France. But though there were an hundred 
thousand of your swearing countrymen in France, 
they will never conquer that kingdom." A con- 
temporary historian, who had frequently conversed 
with Henry VI., mentions it as a commendable 
singularity in his character, that he did not swear 
in common conversation, but reproved his ministers 
and officers of state for so odious an habit, which, 
much to our honour, is now almost universally 
reprobated, and quite banished from every polite 
company.* 

Great was the extravagance in dress during this 
century, though not so great as in that which 

* Adams— New Hist, of Great Britain, p. 147. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 157 

immediately preceded it. In the fourth year of 
Henry IV. 's reign it was found necessary to 
revive the sumptuary laws enacted by his prede- 
cessors, but they were practically disregarded. 
" No man not being a banneret, or person of high 
estate," was permitted to wear cloth of gold, of 
crimson, or cloth of velvet, or motley velvet, or 
large hanging sleeves open or closed, or gowns so 
long as to touch the ground, or to use the furs of 
ermine, lettice, or marten, excepting only " gens 
d'armes quant ills sont armez." Decorations of 
gold and silver were forbidden to all who possessed 
less than £200 in goods and chattels, or twenty 
pounds per annum, unless they were heirs to 
estates of fifty marks per annum, or to five hundred 
pounds' worth of goods and chattels. Four years 
afterwards it was ordained that no man, let his 
condition be what it might, should be permitted 
to wear a gown or garment cut or slashed into 
pieces in the form of letters, rose leaves, and posies 
of various kinds, or any such-like devices, under 
the penalty of forfeiting the same. And, in order 
to more fully carry out this edict, it was ordered 
that the offending tailor who made such garments 
should be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. 
But that these statutes were little regarded, is 
proved by the complaints of Occleve the poet, from 
whose poem of " Pride and Waste-clothing of 
Lorde's Men, which is azens [against] their 
Estate," — we quote two stanzas, somewhat moder- 
nizing the spelling — 

" Who now most may bear on his back at once, 
Of cloth and furrour (furs) hath a fresh renown, 
He is a lusty man clepyd for the nones : 
Now have these lords little need of brooms 
To sweep away the filth out of the street, 
Since side sleeves of pennyless grooms 
Will it up lick, be it dry or wet. 



158 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

" If a wight virtuous, but narrow clothed, 
To lords' courts now-a-days go, 
His company is to myk (many) folk lothed. 
Men pass by him both to and fro, 
And scorn him for he is arrayed so ; 
To their conceit there is no wight virtuous 
But he whose array is outrageous.' , * 

In 1463, two years after the ascension of 
Edward IV., an act was passed prohibiting any- 
one making or wearing shoes or boots with pikes 
exceeding two inches ! But in that reign, as if to 
show their contempt of the law, nobles, rich men, 
and even burghers, wore shoes in which the points 
were more ridiculously long than ever. As no 
notice was taken of the law, the power of the 
church was called in, and the wearers of the pro- 
hibited boots and shoes were excommunicated. 
Holy, pure, just, and infallible church, to send a 
man to perdition rather than allow him to wear 
long-pointed shoes ! But neither the law nor the 
church could control the fashion. Towards the 
end of the fourth Edward's reign, shoes and boot3 
began to be made and worn almost as wide. as they 
were long ; so another act was passed, forbidding 
them to be worn more than six inches broad at the 
toe. It was not, however, till the reign of Henry 
VII. that the long-toed shoes and boots went out 
of fashion. 

The lower garments of gentlemen during this 
period, were all of one piece from the foot to the 
waist. There were no separate stockings and 
pantaloons. This dress fitted as tight to their 
limbs as possible. Their upper garments were of 
various kinds and shapes. In Henry IV.'s reign, 
caps were generally turned up at the sides, some 
more, some less, a good deal resembling turbans. 

* Quoted by Planche in his Hist, of British Costume. 



THE ENGLISH NATION". 159 

The elder gentlemen much affected a close-fitting 
gown or coat, with skirts reaching to the feet. 
It was buttoned down the front, and had a row of 
similar buttons under each sleeve from the elbow. 
Their broad hats were turned up behind, and 
beneath them they wore a hood, which enclosed 
both head, neck, and shoulders, like a cape. The 
younger men wore tunics fitting the body, belted 
at the waist, and with skirts terminating at the 
knee. The sleeves were wide, but not so long as 
in the preceding or succeeding reign. 

The dress of the ladies of Henry I V.'s time was 
remarkable for a very singular gown, open at the 
sides, and showing the dress beneath, called the 
sideless gown ; also for a peculiar and ludicrous 
style of immense head-gear. To such a pre- 
posterous extent was this head-dress carried in 
France, that it is said — w r e suppose in jest — that 
the doors of the palace of Vincennes were obliged 
to be both heightened and widened to admit 
Isabella of Bavaria, queen of Charles' VI., and the 
ladies of her suite. The ladies also wore exceed- 
ingly rich and beautiful girdles, which hung down 
to a great length in front, as may be seen in all 
the effigies of the Countess of Arundel, Lady de 
Thorpe, the Countess of Westmoreland, and others 
in " Stothard's Effigies." The collar of SS, or 
Esses, made its appearance in this reign as a badge 
of honour. We know not its origin, but think 
with Meyrick, that it was perhaps from the motto 
of the fourth Henry whilst Earl of Derby — 
" Souveraine. ,, 

In the reign of Henry V. the tunics of the men 
became shorter, and the sleeves immensely longer, 
till they actually swept the ground. These 
sleeves were sometimes fancifully indented on the 



160 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

edges, or cut in the form of leaves. In all this 
century beards were close shaven, except by men 
of mature age. The ladies of this reign continued, 
and even exaggerated, the stupendous head-gear 
alluded to. They actually wore horns, on which 
they hung their veils and ribbons. From the 
horn on the right side a streamer of silk or other 
light fabric was hung, which was sometimes al- 
lowed to fly loose, and sometimes brought over the 
bosom, and wrapped over the left arm. The gown 
or robe was worn about the same length and ful- 
ness as in the last reign ; and in the dresses of those 
ladies who patronised rich girdles, the waist was 
somewhat shorter than before. 

The reign of Henry VI. was not marked by 
any great change of costume ; but the dresses of 
both males and females were much trimmed with 
fur, and long tippets frequently depended from 
the hat to the ground. The hair was cut short, 
and caps or hats of fantastic shapes were worn 
sometimes with a single long feather. The long- 
toed shoes reappeared. Ladies head-dresses had 
decreased in width, but many of them had risen 
in height. Some were horned, or heart-shaped, 
and others were turbans of the genuine Turkish 
fashion. Tippets, or veils, were attached to the 
preposterous head-dresses. The gowns of the 
ladies had enormous trains, with waists extremely 
short, and tightly girded. A writer says that 
Ci serving- women " put fur not only on their collars, 
but on the bottoms of their dresses, which fell 
about their heels and draggled in the mire. 

In Edward IV.' s reign the toes of shoes were 
longer, and the doublets or tunics shorter, than 
ever : only lords were allowed to wear those 
"indecently short dresses;" but the law was 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 1G1 

ignored on all sides. Caps of cloth assumed very 
much the shape of hats ; and the hair was not 
only worn long, but brought down upon the fore- 
head almost into the eyes. All gentlemen wore 
chains of gold of the most massive kind ; and 
about this time large jack or top-boots began to 
be worn. Of all the head-dresses ever introduced 
in the wildest vagaries of fashion, those of the 
ladies of this reign were the most preposterous 
and amusing. The horns now rose up from the 
cap or bonnet, enclosing it from behind, and rear- 
ing their lofty points into the air, like those of 
some wild bison : these were covered with some 
richly-patterned silk or velvet. Others had round 
tower-like bonnets, with battlemented tops, and 
huge transparent shades, enclosing the face, and 
running to a point half a yard before and behind 
them. Others, again, had conical frames half a 
yard high set upon their heads, covered with lace 
or velvet. These had frequently a large wing on 
each side, like those of butterflies, and from the 
top fell a piece of fine lawn, often quite to the 
ground. These preposterous caps became so much 
the rage, that the peasant women of Normandy, 
especially in the Boccage, still wear a head-dress of 
this fashion : they tower aloft in the market-places, 
white as snow, with their butterfly wings gene- 
rally tied over the front. 

In the costumes of the short reign of Eichard 
III., the gentlemen appear again in top-boots, 
with spurs, and enormous long toes. They wore 
long tight hose, fastened to the doublet with laces 
or points, as they were called. The doublet was 
open in front, showing a stomacher, and over this 
was worn a short loose gown, plaited before and 
behind, with full slashed sleeves. These gowns 



162 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

and doublets were of the richest and most brilliant 
velvets and satins. On the head was a small cap, 
generally round and closely fitting, with a roll of 
fur round it, or turned up at the side with a 
feather, jewelled up the stem. The hair was w r orn 
thick and bushy behind. The ladies, in some 
measure, discarded the steeple caps, and wore the 
hair thrown backwards, in a caul of gold, and 
over it a kerchief of the finest texture, stiffened 
out and descending to the back. Some of these 
kerchiefs were very large. Their gowms were as 
before, with turn-over collars and cuffs of fur or 
velvet. 

The armour through this period was of solid 
plate, varied in every reign in too many small 
particulars to be here enumerated. Warriors 
sometimes slept in their armour, and the people 
in their day-clothes* — not a very comfortable way 
of resting the wearied body, as it would seem to us. 

The sport3 and pastimes of this age were very 
similar to those of the preceding century. Besides 
jousts and tournaments, the English were keen 
followers of the sports of the field. But in their 
in-door amusements they exhibited most exemplary 
patience. They were accustomed to sit hours, and 
even successive days, it is said, over what appear 
to us very dull plays, both sacred and profane, 
called mysteries, moralities, and miracles. They 
also patronised various kinds of public pageants, 
attended by every species of minstrels, jugglers, 
mummers, rope-dancers, and mountebanks. The 
more simple and healthy sports of the commonalty 
were foot-ball, trap -ball, and hand-ball, in which 
indeed the aristocracy often excelled ; playing, on 
horseback as well as on foot, for large stakes. 

* Planche*— Howitt— and others. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 163 

They had a large kind of leather ball, probably- 
filled with air, which they propelled sometimes by 
bats, and sometimes merely with the hand. In 
Scotland, when James I. was anxious to introduce 
archery, he forbade foot-ball, quoits, and similar 
popular games, as well as a game which was 
called u cloish, kayles, half-bowl, handin-handout, 
and quickeaborde." Card-playing was still checked 
by the high price of a pack of cards, which cost 
no less than eighteen shillings and eightpence in 
Paris, or upwards of £9 of our present money. 
In 1463, the English card -makers obtained an 
act of parliament to exclude foreign cards. The 
cause of their high price lay in their richly-gilded 
and painted figures.* 

In architecture, in music, and in painting, the 
church of Rome, however it might fail in spirit 
and doctrine, acquitted itself royally towards the 
public during this period, as well as at other times. 
The remains of painted windows — to say nothing 
of the productions of such men as Raphael, 
Michael Angelo, and many others — are sufficient 
to excite our highest admiration. Indeed the 
ecclesiastics of all ages have been generous and 
munificent patrons of art. Gothic architecture 
continued to be gradually improved, and in the 
course of this period attained its nearest approach 
to perfection. The wealthy no longer lived in 
moated castles, but began to inhabit large rambling 
mansions, constructed of timber, and covered 
with plaster. The large houses were generally 
built round one or two quadrangles, and often 
possessed a great variety of exterior detail ; with- 
in, the great hall with its open groined roof, the 
kitchen, and the buttery, cut the principal figure. 
• Pio. Hist, of Eng.— Vol. II., page 68. 



164 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

At the upper end of the hall was the dais or raised 
floor, on which stood the table of the lord and his 
family, and principal guests ; and below the great 
salt-cellar sat the remainder of the establishment. 
Gentlemen sat on wooden benches, and ladies on 
low stools. At the lower end there was generally 
a music gallery. The fireplace was usually situ- 
ated in the centre of the hall, and in the roof was 
a hole to permit the smoke to escape ; chimneys 
were not yet in general use. The floors were 
strewn with rushes as of old, instead of carpets. 
Overhead were perches for hawks ; the floor was 
crowded with, dogs, gnawing the bones thrown to 
them by the guests. The walls were hung with 
arras, which concealed their roughness, and at the 
same time kept out cold. Plaster ceilings were 
still unknown. The greater part of these houses, 
however, was required for the sleeping apartments 
of the numerous retainers, which were not very 
clean or comfortable in the fifteenth century. The 
beds were usually straw pallets, each covered 
with a sheet, with a log of wood for a bolster, and 
a horse-cloth for a coverlet ! In farm-houses and 
similar buildings, the same plan of building round 
a quadrangle was adhered to. A great number of 
such buildings were of framed timber, with orna- 
mental gables and porches, and displaying much 
curious carving. Great Chatfield manor-house in 
Wiltshire, Harlaxton in Lincolnshire, and some 
others, in whole or in part, date from this period. 
In towns, the houses were also chiefly of wood. 
The streets were very narrow, and the upper 
stories of the houses projected over the lower ones, 
so that from the windows of the upper story people 
could almost shake hands. Many of the small 
houses in narrow streets were adorned with an 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 165 

abundance of carving. The houses or inns of the 
great barons, prelates, and abbots, were very ex« 
tensive, and surrounded inner courts. So extensive 
were some of them, that a thousand men could be 
accommodated. From all that we can learn, the 
poorer people of this age were but indifferently 
housed; indeed, the dwellings of the rich were 
more stately than comfortable. 

At this period, two events of great importance 
to learning and art occurred : the invention of 
printing, and the introduction of Greek literature. 
At the time Greek began to be studied, the know- 
ledge of Latin w r as very low ; though it still con- 
tinued to be the language of divines, lawyers, 
philosophers, historians, and even poets, yet it had 
lost almost all traces of its original idiom and 
elegance. Latin words w T ere used, but in the 
English order, and when words were wanting they 
Anglicised them. For example, William of Wor- 
cester, speaking of the arrival of the Duke of York 
from Ireland, says — "et arrivavit apud Redbanke, 
prope Cestriam," that is, and arrived at Redbanke, 
near Chester. Literature was not much encour- 
aged. 

" The best scholars in the kingdom were often 
driven to the necessity of begging their bread from 
door to door, with a recommendation from the 
chancellor of their university to public charity.'' * 
Wood also tells us, that two of these learned men- 
dicants came to the castle of a certain nobleman, 
who, understanding from their credentials, that 
they had a taste for poetry, commanded his ser- 
vants to take them to a well ; to put each of them 
into a bucket, and let them down alternately into 
the water, and to continue that exercise till each 

* Wood—quoted by William Howitt in his Pic. Hist, of England. _ 



166 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

of tliem had made a couplet on his bucket. After 
they had endured this discipline for a considerable 
time, to the great entertainment of the baron and 
his family, they made their verses and obtained 
their liberty. This ancedote gives an idea of the 
mental darkness in the fifteenth century. If the 
scholars were so treated by an aristocrat, what 
must have been the state of the people ? Until 
the reign of Henry IV., no villein, farmer, or 
manufacturer was allowed to send his children to 
school, nor for long afterwards dared they educate 
a son for the church, without first obtaining a 
licence from their lords. 

But the time was coming for the removal of 
these mental clouds. The Chinese had printed 
from engraved wooden blocks for many centuries, 
when the same idea suggested itself to Coster or 
Faust. Coster first cut his letters in wood, then 
made separate wooden letters, and employed them 
in printing books by tying them together with 
strings. From wood he proceeded to cut his 
letters in metal, and finally to cut them in the 
present fashion. He did his best to keep his 
process a secret from every one except his children ; 
but Gutenberg, one of his assistants, went off to 
Mayence, taking with him Coster's moveable 
types. This is the story of the Dutch with regard 
to the invention of printing. The Germans tell a 
very different tale. They insist on Gutenberg 
being the originator of printing ; and that Holland 
had no share whatever in the invention. It is 
well known, however, that all the earliest block 
printing was performed in the Low Countries 
during the period under consideration. Some say 
that printing was invented in the year 1430, in the 
reign of Henry VI., by John Gensfleisch. About 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 169 

greatest foe — freedom and democracy their mighti- 
est alley — on the day when Gutenberg, Schoeffer, 
and Faust were first " inspired by the devil " to 
invent and practise that black art. The clergy of 
that day declared that printing was an invention 
of the devil — Mr. Langford shrewdly asks, " Were 
these men wise in their generation ? and did they 
foresee an end of their power in the mystic types of 
the press ? " 

It would be almost vain to look for one divine? 
physician, or philosopher, who proved a glory to 
England during this period. The best writers are 
not our own countrymen, but Frenchmen ; Frois- 
sart, Ordericus, and a few others, give us a better 
account of our own affairs than any of our own 
writers living at this period.* 

The English, at this time, were divided into 
three religious parties : the church, which was for 
standing as it was, unmoved and unmoving for 
ever; the Lollards, who were for pulling down the 
church, stick and stone ; and another large section 
of the public, which saw the corruption of the 
church and demanded its reform, but did not quite 
agree with the Lollards in the cry for its destruc- 
tion. Our kings then stood in need of the aid of 
the church ; so the hierarchy was allowed to let 
loose its fury on the poor Lollards. To oblige the 
churchmen, Henry IV. consented to the passing 
of the first law for the burning of heretics ; that is 
to say, persons who dared to differ in opinion from 
the religion of the state. In accordance with this 
barbarous act, William Sawtre, minister of Lynn 
in Norfolk, and afterwards the minister of St. 
Osith's in London, and the first English martyr, 
was burnt at the stake on the 10th of March, 1401. 
*See the new edition of " Ordericus," published by IL G. Bolm. 

M 



170 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

In 1415, John Claydon, a London farrier, and a 
" stubborn heretic/' after having been confined 
for five years, was burnt for having in his posses- 
sion heretical books, especially one called " The 
Lanterne of Light." Sir John Oldcastle, a follower 
of Wycliffe, was the first nobleman who suffered 
martyrdom for his religious opinions. He was 
roasted alive in St. Giles's fields by the priests of 
the infallible Roman church . . • . Scores 
of people were put to death; but, nevertheless, 
Lollardism increased. The more honest men 
were persecuted for their religious opinions, the 
more they embraced the opinions of good old 
reformer Wycliffe. The morality of the priest- 
hood was as low as it could well be; notwith- 
standing which, they claimed credit for much 
learning and piety. Archbishop Bouchier, while 
putting the reformers to the most terrible of deaths, 
complained that numbers of " the clergy, both 
regular and secular, were ignorant and illiterate 
blockheads, or rather idiots ; " and that they were 
tC as profligate as they were ignorant, neglecting 
their cures, strolling about the country with bad 
women, and spending the revenues of their benefices 
in feasting, drinking, and adultery." Whilst the 
clergy were exhibiting these disgraceful character- 
istics, all the outward rites and ceremonies of the 
church were dogmatically insisted upon. The 
sacramental cup was denied to all but those of 
their own persuasion and practice; the people 
were told that the wine in the cup was not the 
sacrament, but was given merely to enable them 
to swallow the bread more easily, and religion was 
abused by many like absurdities. 

Great stress was laid on the efficacy of pilgrim- 
ages, processions, plenary indulgences, confessions 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 171 

to priests, and ecclesiastical pardons. George 
Neville, archbishop of York, reckoned as many as 
thirty-seven kinds of sin, which none but the pope 
or one of his bishops could pardon. Heresy was 
considered the first and greatest sin — the least 
was the raising seditions which might endanger a 
city or state ! 

A convocation held at York in 1466, in its first 
canon ordered that every parish priest should 
preach four times in the year, either himself or by 
another ! To be brief, it would be difficult to say 
whether ignorance or vice most prevailed during 
the dark ages immediately preceding the Reforma- 
tion. 

In the reign of Henry V., a ship, 186 feet in 
length, was built at Bayonne for the king, who 
claimed the credit of having established a perma- 
nent navy ! Before his reign, kings occasionally 
assembled large fleets, but they consisted of vessels 
either belonging to merchants of different English 
ports, or hired of foreign countries. Foreign mer- 
chants were, according to law, compelled to lay 
out in English merchandise all the money they 
received for goods imported into this country. 
No gold or silver coin, plate or bullion, was on any 
account to be carried out of the kingdom. Mer- 
chants were to sell all the goods they brought to 
our ports within three months; but they were 
not to sell any of them to other merchant 
strangers. When they arrived in an English 
town they were assigned to particular hosts, and 
were allowed to lodge nowhere else. These facts 
prove how ignorant were our forefathers with re- 
spect to commerce and shipping. In most Euro- 
pean countries banks were established about this 
period. Wool, tin, and corn, were still our chief 



] 72 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

exports, and slaves ceased to be considered chat- 
tels or articles of commerce. 

One of the most remarkable merchants of this 
time was Sir Richard Whittington, u thrice lord 
mayor of London ." He lived in the reign of 
Henry V., and his history is purely legendary. Of 
his mode of trading nothing is positively known 
but the fact that he did trade and grew rich. 
Some say that he acquired great wealth by trading 
in a vessel called the Cat, whence arose the story 
of his remarkable adventures ; others inform us 
that, so far from being a poor boy and making his 
fortune by a cat, he was the son of Sir William 
Whittington, knight. Certain it is, however, that 
he left his mark upon the age in which he lived, 
and bequeathed to posterity a good name. 

Music made much progress in this age. Henry 
V. was an ardent patron and admirer of it, and 
not only played well himself on the harp, but had 
a regular military band which attended him in 
France, and played for an hour every morning and 
evening before his tent. Church music was at 
this time carefully taught at the universities. 
James I. is said to have been an exquisite musi- 
cian, and to have introduced a plaintive but touchy 
ing style of modulation. The plaintive character 
of Scottish ballad music may indeed be partly 
derived from this monarch. 

The military arts were extensively and indus-? 
triously practised during this period, through the 
wars with France, and the " Wars of the Roses ; " 
and many improvements were made in the manner 
of raising, forming, paying, and disciplining troops. 
The fifth Henry was, as far as his light went, a 
master of this art, and was, perhaps, the first Eng- 
lish king who introduced a regular scheme of dis- 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 1 73 

cipline in the English army. He taught his troops 
to march in straight lines at proper distances, with 
a steady, measured pace ; to advance, attack, halt, 
or fall back without breaking ranks, or getting 
into confusion. As a cons equence of this improve- 
ment in discipline, at the battles of Agincourt, 
,£ / Cressy, Ppictiers^ &c, the English evinceTIuuTmost 
rg / invincible steadiness and courage. The destruction 
dpi/ caused by the famous English archers was im- 
^mense; whenever they fought they made them- 
f*v«L* selves masters of the field, and all the great battles 
^ of this time were won by their agency. Though 
gunpowder was invented, it was not much used; 
*"** ' the soldiers of those times preferred arms to which 
they had been accustomed to new ones, of which 
they had little knowledge. Cannons were first 
used in England at the siege of Berwick in 1405. 
Some of the cannons were very large, and dis- 
charged balls of five hundred pounds weight. 
They are said to have required fifty horses to draw 
them. But others were not much heavier than a 
musket. Most of the early cannon-balls were 
made of stone. Henry V. once ordered two offi- 
cers to press into his service a sufficient number of 
masons to make seven thousand balls in the quar- 
ries of Maidstone-heath. But the art of con- 
structing balls of iron, and discharging them red- 
hot from cannons, was known and practised at a 
comparatively early period. 

A lasting reproach to the English of this period 
is their cruel treatment of that true heroine, 
Joan of Arc, whose story is too well known to 
need repetition in these pages. 

In this epoch occurred those civil commotions 
known in history as cc the Wars of York and Lan- 
caster," or " the Wars of the two Koses." William 



174 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Howitt, in speaking of the civil wars in the reign 
of Edward IV., says : " This civil war was now 
known all over the world as the War of the Roses, 
a name said to be derived from a circumstance 
which took place in a dispute in the Temple 
Gardens betwixt Warwick and Somerset, at an 
early period of the rival factions. Somerset, in 
order to collect the suffrages of those on the side 
of Lancaster, is said to have plucked a red rose 
from a bush, and to have called upon every man 
who held with him to do the like. Warwick, for 
York, plucked a white rose, and thus the partisans 
were distinguishable by these differing badges. 
But in truth these badges were the badges of the 
two houses as far back as Edward I. Edmund, 
Earl of Lancaster, brother of that king, wore the 
red rose, and the Black Prince the white. They 
were now adopted universally by the followers of 
the two houses, and rosettes of red or white 
ribbon, or even of paper, were worn by all the 
soldiers of these wars, red for Lancaster, white for 
York. They were soon to be equally dyed in a 
crimson torrent such as had yet rarely flowed in 
all the wars of England." 

Shakespeare has plainly averred that Henry IV. 
was an usurper ; and that the House of York had 
the best title to the throne.* These disastrous 
civil wars lasted sixteen years. Thirteen battles 
were fought, thousands of people lost their lives, 
and the houses of York and Lancaster were not 
united till Henry VII. married Elizabeth, the 
eldest daughter of the fourth Edward. 

The title of Sir was formerly given to clergymen 
who had obtained an university degree ; and it is 

* King Henry VI., Part II., Act II., Scene 2 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 175 

still retained on the rolls of the English univer- 
sities. 

In the reign of Edward IV. a tradesman was 
executed for saying that his son was " heir to the 
crown/' by which he meant, simply the sign of his 
house. Robert Byfield, sheriff of London, was 
fined for kneeling too near the king! In the reign 
of Richard III., Sir William Collingburn was 
executed on a charge of treason ; but in reality it 
was for daring to say, that " The Rat, the Cat, 
and Lovel, our dog, rule all England under a Hog/' 
alluding to Sir Richard JSa/cliffe, Sir William 
Cafesby, the arms of Viscount Lovel, namely, a 
dog, and those of the king, which were a wild 
boar. What liberty of speech was allowed to the 
English of the fifteenth century, this anecdote will 
best show ! 

Henry IV. had the sword which he wore on 
landing at Ravenspur, borne naked and erect 
before him at his coronation, by the Earl of 
Northumberland — thus asserting his title as of the 
sword ; and he conferred the Isle of Man on the 
earl, in fee " for himself and his heirs, for the 
service of carrying this sword at the present and 
all future coronations." But not content with 
distinctly announcing that he intended to defend 
by the sword the crown which he had won by it, 
he also introduced an additional incident, which 
would nowadays be considered highly absurd, but 
which then, no doubt, was calculated to make 
a great impression on the ignorant and superstitious 
populace. He had the coronation oil carried in a 
vessel of stone, with a cover of gold set with 
diamonds, which it was announced was brought 
from heaven by the Virgin Mary, and delivered to 
Thomas a Becket, with an assurance that th e 



176 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

kings anointed with that oil would be great and 
victorious princes, and zealous champions of the 
church." * 

It was about this time that Henry IV. instituted 
the order of knighthood called " Knights of the 
Bath" — a military order consisting of forty-six 
esquires. They were so called because they were 
required to bathe before creation — to intimate 
that their minds and intentions were " pure and 
loyal." From the reign of Charles II. to that of 
George I., this order was held in abeyance ; but 
since the time of the first George it has become 
the most common honorary reward of military 
officers and distinguished civilians. 

In the reign of Henry V., the Guildhall in 
London was completed. In it were held all the 
corporation courts — such as the mayor's court, the 
sheriff's court, the common council-men's court, 
&c, and in it are still held various law courts. 
Guild means a company or corporation, and is 
derived from the Saxon word guildan, to pay. 
Every member paid something towards the general 
expenses, hence its name. 

Engraving and etching were invented, and 
plaster of Paris first brought into use in the reign 
of Henry VI. Etching and wood-engraving were 
invented by Albert Durer, a German; copper- 
plate engraving was invented by Lucas, a Dutch- 
man ; plaster of Paris is a chalky stone, found in 
the neighbourhood of Paris, burnt and reduced to 
powder. In the same reign, water-pumps and the 
manufacture of glass were introduced into England 
from foreign countries. Ctesebes, an Athenian, 
invented water-pumps 150 B.C. ; but the invention 
was not known in England till this time. Glass is 

*Pic. Hist, of Eng.— Vol. I., p. 482. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 177 

said to have been invented thus : Some Syrian 
merchants who, being shipwrecked, gathered a 
heap of sea-weed to make a fire, and the weed, 
mixing with the sand, produced glass. This 
occurred b c. 209. The French learned the manu- 
facture of glass from the Italians, and the English 
from the French. Dr. Johnson's well-known 
account of the discovery of glass has preserved 
this anecdote in choice English. 

In the reign of the sixth Henry, the title of 
viscount was first adopted in England. This title 
of honour was a degree below that of count or earl. 
Lord John Beaumont was the first English 
viscount. The Lord Mayor's show, on the fifth 
of November, had its origin in this reign. In 
outward ceremonial it has varied little from the 
first year of its introduction. 

The national debt — that is, money borrowed by 
the government upon parliamentary security — 
commenced in the reign of Henry VI., but it 
remained insignificant in amount till the reign of 
William III. It reached its culminating point in 
the time of the third George. 

In the reign of Edward IV. watches were 
invented by Peter Hale, a German mechanic, and 
violins by an Italian ; but watches were not intro- 
duced into England till the reign of Elizabeth, 
nor violins till the time of Charles II. In the 
same reign, yew-trees were ordered to be culti- 
vated in churchyards, for the making of bows, 
for which purpose the wood was particularly well 
adapted. 

In the reign of Crookback, the inundation of 
the Severn was so great, that for one hundred 
years after it was called the Great Flood, or 
Buckingham's Flood. The tops of the surrounding 



178 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

liills are said to have been covered, and many 
houses and cattle are said to have been carried 
away in its course. 

Post-horses and stages, or regular resting-places, 
date their origin from the time of Richard III. 
In our own day stage-coaches have been nearly 
superseded by railways. 

To show the superstition of those times, mention 
may be made of a charge of sorcery against the 
Duchess of Gloucester. She was accused of high 
treason; "for that she, by sorcery and enchant- 
ment, intended to destroy the king, to the intent 
to advance and promote her husband to the crown." 
Beside the duchess and Bolingbroke, there were 
arrested as accomplices, Southwell, a canon of St. 
Paul's, Hum, a priest, and Marjory Jourdemain, 
a witch. Many charges were brought against the 
duchess — one of the most terrible and absurd was, 
that she had procured from Southwell and Boling- 
broke a wax figure, which w^as so moulded by art, 
that when placed before the fire, as it melted away 
the flesh of the king would melt away also, his 
marrow dry up, and his health fade. Eight-and- 
twenty such charges were preferred against Dame 
Eleanor and her companions ; and on such ridicu- 
lous pleas she was condemned on three days of the 
week to walk bareheaded, and bearing a lighted 
taper in her hand, through the streets of London, 
and afterwards to be confined for life in the Isle of 
Man. The unfortunate men of science connected 
with this affair were condemned to be hanged, 
drawn, and quartered at Tyburn ; which horrible 
sentence was fully carried into effect in the majority 
of cases. 

The winter of 1434 was so severe that the 
Thames was frozen over sufficiently to bear heavy 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 179 

waggons and thousands of persons on its surface. 
One of the amusements on the ice was the cere- 
mony of roasting a small sheep. For a view of 
this extraordinary spectacle sixpence was demand- 
ed, and willingly paid. The meat, when roasted, 
was sold at one shilling a slice. Of booths there 
was a great collection, ornamented with streamers, 
flags, and signs, and in which there were a plenti- 
ful store of spirits, beer, gingerbread, &c. The 
grand walk was from Blackfriars Bridge to London 
Bridge. It was called the City Eoad, and was 
lined on each side with all sorts of tradesmen's 
stalls. Eight or ten printing-presses were erected, 
and numerous pieces were actually printed on the 
ice. One of the articles printed and sold on the 
ice contained the following verse — 

u Behold, the river Thames is frozen o'er, 
Which lately ships of mighty burden bore ; 
Now different arts and pastimes here you see, 
But printing claims the superiority." 

Swings, dancing in a barge, playing at skittles, 
&c, were likewise transferred from the land to the 
frozen body of the Thames, and numbers of people 
flocked to behold and to partake of the various 
sports and pastimes. Books and toys, labelled 
a Bought on the Thames," w T ere seen in profusion. 
It was a good time for the watermen, for each 
person paid a toll of twopence or threepence be- 
fore he was admitted to Frost Fair, which com- 
menced about the 1st of February, and ended on 
the 5th. 

And here we may be allowed to mention the 
story of Jane Shore. She was a beautiful woman, 
criminally attached to Edward IV., after whose 
death she was accused of witchcraft by Richard 
III., and did penance by walking through London 



180 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

dressed in a white sheet, and carrying a burning 
taper. She was the wife of a goldsmith in Lom- 
bard Street, and is supposed by some writers to 
have died in a ditch, whence the origin of Shore- 
ditch. It is, however, asserted by good authorities, 
that she lived forty years after her penance, though 
in extreme poverty. 

British consuls — officers sent by the crown to 
foreign countries to protect the British merchants, 
and to facilitate trade — were first created in the 
reign of Eichard III., since which period they have 
been regularly appointed by the crown. 

The qualification for a member of Parliament 
at this time was the possession of £40 a year — 
equivalent to £400 of our present money. The 
peers attended parliament at their own cost, but 
all members of the House of Commons received 
regular sums as payment of their expenses. These 
early u payments of members " w^ere, in the reign 
of the third Edward, fixed at four shillings a-day 
for a knight of the shire, and two shillings a-day 
for a citizen ; and this rate of payment continued 
as long as the system continued to be adopted. 
It must be remembered that a shilling at that time 
was equal to twenty of ours, so that a county 
member would receive a sum per day equivalent 
to £4 of our money, and a borough member £2. 
These expenses were a sharp spur to the despatch 
of business. The number of representatives con- 
stituting the Commons of England about this 
period seems to have been 254 — being 180 from 
90 boroughs, and 74 knights of shires. 

The condition of the people at the end of this 
period was far better than that at the close of the 
last ; a very great improvement being annually 
observable. Strange to say, the civil wars greatly 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 181 

contributed to the amelioration of the poorer 
English ; the decrease in the numbers of the 
labouring classes, of course raised their value as 
labourers, and caused them to get double the 
wages they formerly demanded. When a man 
took up arms, he never consented to return to the 
condition of a villein. Wat Tyler's rebellion took 
place in the year 1381, and in 1450 the famous 
rise of the English people, headed by Jack Cade, 
took place, Shakespeare has given a ludicrous 
account of this latter affair, and we doubt not but 
that in his time the opinions held by the lower 
classes of the people in general, partook of the 
complexion our great poet has given to the riot.* 
But let us see what history says of this rising of 
the people. The fact is instructive, and we see in 
this record the advance made by the people since 
1380. f "In 1380 their chief demand was the 
abolition of villeinage or slavery : for any political 
rights, any power of interfering in the making of 
laws, or in public affairs, there was no claim. In 
1450, not a word was said about villeinage ; that 
question had been settled — villeinage was nearly, 
if not altogether, swept away. What the commons 
now insisted upon was the redress of political, or 
at least public grievances ; such as waste of the 
king's revenues, the unjust seizure by the crown 
of the property of the subject, delay in the admi- 
nistration of justice, and the illegal interference of 
the nobility in elections of knights of the shire ; 
which la&t, they contended, ought to be free, and 
left where the law had placed them, in the hands 
of the people. $ 

* Henry VI— Part EL, Act IV. 

f Langford.— Eng. Democracy, p, 18. 

I Wade's History of the Middle and Working Classes— C. IL, p. 10, 



182 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

We have thus endeavoured to present to the 
reader a distinct, but perhaps imperfect, view of 
the manners, customs, state, and appearance of 
our forefathers living in the fifteenth century — a 
century which seems to close the more strictly 
feudal times — times which printing, literature, 
science, and art, were hastening to terminate, and 
not only to terminate, but to inaugurate an en- 
tirely new period with new states of society. It 
was a period by no means favourable to the intel- 
lectual or moral advance of the people. Voluptu- 
ousness, epicurism, and perjury, were everyday 
sins. The people were superstitious — running 
after pilgrimages, saints, fastings, and such like 
things ; whilst they had so abandoned all love of 
God and love of neighbour, that they began to 
burn God's children and their own brothers for 
opinion's sake. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 183 



CHAPTER VI. 

Manners and Customs of the English, from 1485 to 1603; during 
the reigns of Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and 
Elizabeth the Maiden. 

Free intercourse and reciprocal confidence 
between parents and their children, are the best 
criterions of civilized society. In the period now 
under review, domestic manners were severe and 
formal ; hence, therefore, true domestic bliss was 
comparatively unknown to our ancestors. Elderly 
folk were haughty and reserved, and exacted 
abject deference from the young. No child ever 
presumed to sit in the presence of its parents, or 
to speak without leave. When tired, girls might 
kneel on cushions at the further end of the room, 
but boys were invariably expected to stand bare- 
headed. Even when sons arrived at manhood, 
they often stood uncovered and silent in their 
father's presence ; and daughters, though women, 
stood like statues by the doorway, and were not 
permitted to sit down till their parents gave them 
leave. Something of this formality is observed 
in the palaces of kings in our own day, so great 
tyrants are custom and precedent. It was for- 
tunate for children in the times of the Tudors 
that they were not with their parents all the day 
long, but only for a short time at stated periods. 
Corporal punishment was often resorted to, 
Roger Ascham, the tutor of Queen Elizabeth, 
used to " pinch, nip, and bob (slap) the princess 
if she displeased him in the least. Ladies carried 



] 84 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

fans with handles a yard long, with which they 
struck their children whenever they were trouble- 
some or disobedient ! " 

During the period under consideration, the 
wealthy still supported, in some degree, the ancient 
magnificence in their hospitality and in the number 
of their retainers. Queen Elizabeth often visited 
her wealthy courtiers : the Earl of Leicester gave 
her an entertainment in Kenilworth castle, which 
was remarkable for cost and magnificence. For 
example, one particular we are told is, that three 
hundred and sixty-five hogsheads of beer were 
drank at it. The Earl of Derby kept two hundred 
and forty servants. Burleigh, though he was 
frugal and had no paternal estate, kept one hun- 
dred servants. He entertained the queen twelve 
different times in his country-house, where she 
remained four or five weeks at a time. Each visit 
cost him between two and three thousand pounds. 
The English were then fond of good cheer and 
frolic-making, merry-making, and music ; they 
were gross eaters and great drunkards ; in manners 
rude, and in all their habits most disorderly. In 
the time of Elizabeth eight o'clock in the morning 
was the breakfast hour — eleven the dinner hour — 
and six the supper hour. The breakfast consisted 
of butter and eggs, boiled beef and ale, &c. All 
the men dined with their hats on, and took them 
off only during grace. 

" The cookery of these times was distinguished 
by a profusion of hot spices, with which every dish 
was seasoned. At entertainments, the rank of the 
guests was discriminated by their situation above 
or below the saltcellar, which was placed invariably 
in the middle of the table; and the usher was 
instructed to displace such as might seat them- 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 185 

selves above their betters. The chief servants 
always attended above the saltcellar, beneath 
which the table was crowded with poor depen- 
dants, whom the guests despised, and the servants 
neglected. Churchmen affected peculiar cere- 
mony ; and the abbot of St. Albans dined with 
greater state than the nobility. His table was ele- 
vated fifteen steps above the hall, and, in serving 
his dinner, the monks at every fifth step performed 
a hymn. He dined alone at the middle of his 
table, to the ends of which the guests of distin- 
guished rank were admitted ; and the monks, after 
attending the abbot, were served with equal 
respect by the novices. At Wolsey's entertain- 
ment of the French ambassadors, the company 
was summoned by trumpet to supper, and the 
courses were announced by a prelude of music." * 

Cardinal Wolsey had such a love of pomp that 
his "train" consisted of five hundred servants, 
many of whom were knights and sons of noblemen. 
A priest went before him carrying a pillar of 
silver, surmounted with a cross, and noblemen- 
ushers cleared the way, crying, "Make way for 
my lord's grace ! " The cardinal's vest was of 
gold and silk, a robe of scarlet cloth adorned his 
shoulders, and he held a sponge to his nose, lest he 
should be offended with the breath of the common 
people ! When he went from home, he rode upon 
a mule covered with crimson velvet and gold 
furniture. When the king visited him, his 
banquets were most sumptuous, and dukes and 
earls condescended to act as his servants. 

Queen Bess appears to have been as fond of 
show and noise as she was of dress ; for we read 
that when she went in state to St. Paul's to hear 

* Adams — New Hist, of Great Britain, Book VI. c. 8. 

N 



186 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

one of the reformers preach, she had — besides a 
vast train of lords and ladies — one thousand 
soldiers, ten great cannons, hundreds of drums and 
trumpets, a party of morris-dancers, and two white 
bears in her train ! 

During the Wars of the Roses, agriculture and 
gardening were greatly neglected; but in this 
period much attention was paid to them, and 
various fruits and vegetables were introduced into 
England. When Queen Catherine wanted a 
salad, she was obliged to despatch a servant to 
the Netherlands to procure it. Potatoes are said 
to have been introduced into Ireland by Sir 
Walter Raleigh, who perhaps brought them from 
America. The general opinion is, that he had 
them planted in his own garden near Youghal, the 
county Cork. He is said to have given them 
to his gardener as a fine fruit from America, 
and ordered them to be planted in his kitchen- 
garden. In August the plants flowered, and in 
September they produced their apples ; but these 
were so totally different from what the gardener 
had expected to see, that, in a fit of ill-humour, he 
pulled them and carried them to his master, 
asking him if those were the fine American fruit. 
Sir Walter either really was, or pretended to be, 
ignorant of the matter; and, having tasted them, 
told the man to dig up the weeds and throw them 
away. The gardener did so, but was astonished 
to find about a bushel of tuberous roots. Trial 
soon showed that this w 7 as the eatable part of the 
plant. The only written proof we have of the 
introduction of the potatoe by Raleigh, is found 
in the manuscript minutes of the Royal Society of 
London, December 13, 1693, when we are told 
the president, Sir Robert Southwell; informed the 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 187 

fellows that his grandfather first cultivated pota- 
toes in Ireland, and that he got them from 
Sir Walter Raleigh. They were cultivated for 
many years in Ireland before they were known 
in England, and were introduced into this island 
by the shipwreck of a vessel containing some of 
them, on the coast of Lancashire, at a place called 
North Meols, which is still famous for their cul- 
tivation.* In South America potatoes grow wild. 
They were considered a great delicacy in the 
reign of James I. In the year 1619, we find 
them mentioned as one of the articles provided 
for the use of the queen's household. The quan- 
tity procured was very small, and the price two 
shillings a-pound. 

" At the close of the fifteenth century, the dress 
of the English was exceedingly fantastical and 
absurd^ insomuch that it was even difficult to 
distinguish one sex from the other." -J- Planche 
shrewdly remarks that this complaint is as old as 
the Conquest. The author of the Boke of Kervynge, 
quoted by Strutt, says to a certain personage, 
" warme your soverayne his petticotte, his doublet t, 
and his stomacher, and then put on hys hozen, 
and then hys schone or slyppers, then stryten up 
his hozen mannerly, and tye them up, then lace 
his doublet hole by hole/' &c. In Barclay's " Ship 
of Fooles of the Worlde," printed by Pynson, a.d. 
1508, may be found several notices of the dress of 
the day. Mention is made of some who had their 
necks — 

" Charged with collars and chaines 
In golden withes, their fingers full of rings, 
Their necks naked almost unto the raines, 
Their sleeves blazing like unto a crane's wings." 

* Popular Encyclopedia, Part XIV., p. 756-7. 
f Strutt. 



188 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Skelton, the poet-laureate of Henry VII., has 
left us a humorous description of Eleanor Rumming, 
a noted hostess of his time, whose dress may be 
considered a pretty good model of the costume of 
females in humble life : — 

" In her furr'd Socket, 
And grey russet rocket, 
Her duke (huke or heuke ?) of Lincoln green ; 
It had been tier's I weene 
More than forty yeare, 
And so it doth appears. 
And the grene bare threads 
Look like sea-weeds, 
Withered like hay, 
The wool worn away; 
And yet I dare say 
She thinks herself gay, 
Upon a holiday, 
When she doth array, 
And girdeth in her gates, 
Stitched and pranked with plates, 
Her kirtle bristow red, 
With cloths upon her head, 
They weigh a ton of lead, 
She hobbles as she goes, 
With her blanket hose, 
Her shoone (shoes) smeared with tallow." * 

The ordinary costume of Harry VIII. was, of 
course, that of the nobility and gentry of his time, 
and we find it to consist of a full-skirted jacket or 
doublet, with large sleeves to the wrist, over which 
was worn a short but equally full coat or cloak, 
with loose hanging sleeves, and a broad rolling 
collar of fur ; a brimmed cap jewelled, and border- 
ed with ostrich feather; stockings, and square- 
toed shoes. Ruffs or ruffles appear at the wrist, 
and a sword was worn at the side. Soon after his 
accession, the close hose, fitting exactly to the 
limbs — in fact, the Norman chausses — were revived 
under the still older name of trouses.'f At a grand 

* MS., Harieian, lib. 7333, quoted by Planchd. 
f Planche— Hist of British Costume, p. 293. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 189 

banquet, given at Westminster in the first year of 
his reign, he is described -as wearing a suit of 
" shorte garments, little — reaching but a little — 
beneath the pointes, of blew velvet and crymosyne, 
with long sleeves, all cut and lyned with cloth of 
gold, and the utter (outer) parts of the garments 
powdered with castles and sheaves of arrowes — the 
badges of Catherine, his queen — of fyne dokett 
(ducat) golde ; the upper part of the hosen of like 
sewte and facion ; the nether parts of scarlet, 
powdered with tymbrelles of fine golde. On his 
head was a bonnet of damaske silver, flatte woven 
in the stoll, and thereupon wrought with golde 
and ryche feathers in it." * 

Then, as in our own day, people aped the cos- 
tume and manners of their superiors. Camden, 
in his u Remains," tells an amusing tale of a shoe- 
maker of Norwich, named John Drakes, who in 
the time of Henry VIII , coming to a tailor's, and 
finding some fine French tawny cloth lying there, 
which had been sent to be made into a gown for 
Sir Philip Calthrop, took a fancy to the colour, 
and ordered the tailor to buy as much of the same 
stuff for him, and make him a gown of it, precisely 
of the same fashion as the knight's, whatever that 
might be. Sir Philip, arriving some time after- 
wards to be measured, saw the additional cloth, 
and inquired to whom it belonged. " To John 
Drakes," replied the tailor, u who will have it 
made in the self-same fashion as yours is made." 
" Well/' said the knight, cc in good time be it ; I 
will have mine as full of cuts as thy shears can 
make it" — and both garments were finished 
according to the order. The shoemaker, on 
receiving his gown slashed almost to shreds, began 

* Hall— Union of the Families of York and Lancaster. 



190 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

to abuse the tailor, but received for answer. u I 
have done nothing but what you bade me ; for, as 
Sir Philip Calthrop's gowne is, even so have I 
made yours." " By my latchet," growled the 
shoemaker, " I will never wear a gentleman's 
fashion again ! " 

In the reign of the eighth Henry, persons 
dressed very much as the yeoman of the guard, 
known as " Beef-eaters," are now r , or were lately, 
dressed — in very showy clothes, full of red and 
yellow stripes. The courtiers stuffed out their 
clothes to make themselves look as big as the ugly 
king, w r hom Leigh Hunt likens to a Whitechapel 
butcher. But though all their dress was wide and 
baggy, yet the sleeves were so tight that some had 
them sewed on the arm every day. The shoes of 
this period were twelve or fourteen inches across 
the toes. The costume of children w r as similar to 
that of the London blue-coat boys of the present 
day. Servants carried pointed bucklers, which, 
with their caps, they left on the sideboard when 
they w r aited at table ; even ploughmen had their 
shields, swords, and bows, which they left in the 
corner of the field, when they went to work. 

About the middle of the reign of Elizabeth, the 
great change took place that gave the female 
costume of the sixteenth century its remarkable 
character. The body was imprisoned in whale- 
bone to the hips ; the partelet, w T hich covered the 
neck to the chin, was removed, and an enormous 
ruff, rising gradually from the front of the shoulders 
to nearly the height of the head behind, encircled 
the wearer like the nimbus or glory of a saint. 
From the bosom, now partially unclosed, descended 
an interminable stomacher, on each side of which 
jutted out horizontally the enormous vardingale- 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 191 

the prototype of that modern-antique, the hoop, 
which was banished the court by King George 
the Fourth, to the great joy of all classes of his 
majesty's subjects, saving only the metropolitan 
dressmakers. The cap or coif was occasionally 
exchanged for a round bonnet like that of the 
men, or the hair dressed in countless curls, and 
adorned with ropes and stars of jewels, and at the 
close of the reign — for the first time — with 
feathers.* 

In the second year of the reign of good Queen 
Bess began the wearing of lawn and cambric ruffs, 
which, Stow informs us, no one could starch or 
stiffen ; she therefore sent for some Dutch women, 
and the wife of her coachman Guillan became her 
first starcher. In 1564, Mistress Dingham Vander 
Plasse, a Fleming, came to London with her hus- 
band, and followed the profession of a starcher of 
ruffs, in which she greatly excelled. She met with 
much encouragement, and was the first who pub- 
licly taught the art of starching, her charge being 
four or five pounds for each scholar, and twenty 
shillings in addition for teaching them how to 
seethe or make the starch. Stubbs, in speaking of 
starch and starchers, says — " The devil hath learn- 
ed them to wash and dive their ruffs, which being 
dry will then stand stiff and inflexible about their 
necks." He also mentions "a device made of 
wires, crested for the purpose, and whipped all 
over either with gold, thread, silver, or silk,'"' for 
supporting these ruffs, and called " a supertasse or 
under-propper." The ruffs were worn so absurdly 
long, that persons were stationed at the gates of 
the different streets, to cut down every ruff which 
exceeded three feet in width. This fashion lasted 

* Planch^. 



192 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

during the whole reign of James I., when a Mrs. 
Turner was hanged up by her ruff for murdering 
Sir Thomas Overbury. This dismal tragedy 
changed the fashion — as well it might. 

As early as the third year of Elizabeth, we read 
that Mistress Montague, the queen's silk woman, 
presented to her majesty a pair of black knit 
silk stockings, made in England, which pleased 
her so much, that she would never wear any cloth 
hose afterwards ; not only on account of the deli- 
cacy of the article itself, but from a laudable desire 
to encourage this new species of English manufac- 
ture by her own example. "Soon after this," 
says Stow, u William Rider, then apprentice to 
Thomas Burdet, at the bridge foot, opposite the 
church of St. Magnus, seeing a pair of knit wor- 
sted stockings at an Italian merchant's, brought 
from Mantua, borrowed them, and having made 
a pair like unto them, presented them to the Earl 
of Pembroke, which was the first pair of worsted 
stockings knit in this country.* 

Probably no woman ever studied variety and 
richness of dress with greater assiduity than good 
Queen Bess. She did her utmost to make herself 
attractive. Shfe appeared almost every day in a 
different costume, and, so fond of clothes was she, 
that she never parted with any of them ! At her 
death, three thousand dresses were found in her 
wardrobe, all the habits she had ever worn. 
Some of them were emblematical. The lining of 
one was worked with eyes and ears to signify 
vigilance, and a serpent was embroidered in the 
arm with pearls and rubies to signify wisdom. 

The pocket-handkerchiefs of the ladies were 
frequently wrought with gold and silver. In the 

* Planch^— Hist, of Brit. Costume, p. 328-9. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 193 

old ballad of George Barnwell, it is said of 
Millwood — 

" A handkerchief she had, 

All wrought with beaten gold ; 
Which she, to stay her trickling tears, 
Before her eyes did hold." 

Paul Hentzer, a German, who travelled in 
England in 1598, thus speaks of Bess: — "Next 
came the queen, in the sixty-fifth year of her age, 
as we are told, very majestic ; her face oblong, fair, 
but wrinkled. She had in her ears two pearls, 
with drops ; she wore false hair, and that red ; and 
upon her head she had a small crown. She was 
dressed in white silk, bordered with pearls of the 
size of beans, and over it a mantle of black silk, 
shot with silver threads. Her train was very long, 
and the end of it borne by a marchioness. Instead 
of a chain, she had an oblong collar of gold and 
jewels. Whoever speaks to her, it is kneeling; 
now and then she raises some with her hand. 
While we were there, she gave William Slawator 
her hand to kiss, sparkling with rings and jewels — 
a mark of particular favour. Wherever she turned 
her face, as she was going along, every body fell 
down upon his knees. In the antechamber, peti- 
tions were presented to her, and she received them 
most graciously, which occasioned the exclamation, 
6 God save the Queen Elizabeth ! ' She answered 
it with ' I thancke youe, myne good peupel.' " 

Pockets, a convenience unknown to the ancients, 
are perhaps the latest real improvement in dress ; 
but, instead of pockets, a loose pouch seems to 
have been sometimes suspended from the girdle in 
the time of the Tudors — a fashion still prevalent 
on some parts of the continent. 

A great change was made in the male costume 



194 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

during the reign of Elizabeth. Stubbs assures us 
that no people in the world u are so curious in new- 
fangles " as those of this country. He describes 
their costly shirts of cambric, holland, lawn, and 
the finest cloths, wrought throughout with needle- 
work of silk, and curiously stitched with open 
seams, and many other knacks besides, which 
rendered them so expensive that some cost ten 
pounds a-piece. The great ruffs worn by the men, 
he mentions almost in the same words as those in 
which he descanted upon the ruffs of the ladies — 
adding, however, that every body will have them 
whether they can afford them or not, and, sooner 
than go without, will sell or mortgage their houses 
and lands. In the earliest paintings or prints of 
the reign of Elizabeth, we perceive the men's cos- 
tume to consist of the large trunk hose, the long- 
waisted doublet, the short cloak or mantle with 
its standing collar, the ruff, the hat-band and 
feather, the shoes and roses. 

At this period houses were generally built of 
strong timber. "In times past, men were con- 
tented to dwell in houses built of willow; but when 
our houses were built of willow, then had we 
oaken men ; but now that our houses are made of 
oak, our men are not only become willow, but a 
great many altogether straw. In these the cour- 
age of the owner was a sufficient defence to keep 
the house in safety ; but now the assurance of the 
timber must defend the men from being robbed." * 

Most of the houses inhabited by the wealthy 
during the Tudor dynasty were large, comfortless 
places, surrounded by walled courts, which seemed 
more like prisons than gentlemen's habitations. 
In Elizabeth's time the style of house adopted by 

* Holingshed. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 195 

the wealthy was something between a castle and 
a mansion. To each residence there was a moat, 
a gateway, and one or two strong turrets, more, 
however, for ornament than defence. Erasmus 
describes the houses of the English as being made 
of wattling plastered over with clay ; the fires 
were kindled against the walls, and the smoke 
escaped either through the roofs, or through the 
doors and windows. 

The furniture of the best houses in this period 
was still quaint, but often rich and picturesque. 
The halls and chambers were still surrounded with 
hangings of tapestry, on which glowed hunting- 
scenes, woodlands, dogs, horsemen, flying stags, 
&c. Hardwick-hall, in Derbyshire, is one of the 
finest preserved houses of that age, and is well 
worth a visit. In such old houses we find an 
abundance of furniture of that period. The chairs 
are generally high-backed, richly carved, stuffed, 
and covered with the richest velvet or satin. In 
Winchester cathedral is still preserved the chair 
in which Queen Mary w T as crowned and married, 
a present from the pope ! Cupboards, long tables, 
forms, chairs, and a few joint-stools formed the 
principal furniture. The beds were apparently 
comfortable and often elegant, but people of in- 
ferior condition slept on mats or straw pallets, 
with rugs for coverlets, and logs for pillows* 
Looking-glasses were now gradually superseding 
mirrors of polished steel, and were carried about 
by ladies in their girdles. Forks, though known, 
were not generally used. Silver spoons were 
made to fold up, and were by wealthy folk carried 
in their pockets for their own use. Spoons of 
wood and horn were common among the populace. 
In Mary's reign drinking-glasses were invented, 



196 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OP 

and were considered more precious than silver. 
Crockery was not uncommon, but china was 
unknown. Carpets were not used till long after 
the Tudors had ceased to reign — rushes were 
strewn on the floors, and the filth which was 
allowed to accumulate was often the cause of 
infectious diseases. Linen was sa scarce that the 
Earl of Northumberland, a most wealthy and 
luxurious man, had only eight table-cloths for his 
own use, and one for the use of his servants, which 
latter was washed once a month ! When a rich 
man removed to his country or town house, he 
took most of his furniture, linen, saucepans, and 
often windows with him. Of chairs and tables 
there were not many to move ; one long table and 
three long benches constituted nearly all the fur- 
niture of Northumberland's state apartment ! 

u Though those times were magnificent, most of 
the comforts and conveniences of modern life were 
unknown. Queen Margaret, on her marriage 
with James IV., made her public entry into 
Edinburgh, riding on a pillion behind the king." * 

The public amusements of the nation underwent 
as great a revolution during this century as its 
religion or its literature. The fall of the church, 
and the introduction of fire-arms, were fatal to the 
spirit of chivalry, and the whole host of religious 
pageants and plays. Henry VIII. and Elizabeth 
exerted themselves to prolong the exercises of 
chivalry, but they had long lost their real soul, and 
fell lifeless to the ground. In vain was the tourna- 
ment of the cloth of gold, or the jousts at which 
Elizabeth presided at Greenwich. They had be- 
come mere mockeries of what once had been the 
all-engrossing contests of knightly honour. In 

* New Hist, of Great Britain, by Adams, p. 175. 



THE ENGLISH NATION 197 

vain did the nobles endeavour to keep alive the 
long-bow and the feats of archery. The musket 
and the sportsman's gun, converted the bow and 
quiver into mere playthings, The tournament 
gave way to the joust, in which the contest was 
conducted with headless lances, and fighting at the 
barriers with blunted axes ; and that at length 
gave way to " riding at the ring," in which the 
gentlemen did not run their lances through the 
bodies of their antagonists, but through a ring 
suspended from a pole ! The last of the ancient 
exercises was the contest with the sword and 
buckler — but the sword was deprived of both 
edge and point ; and, as the combatants were not 
allowed to lunge but only to strike, the practice 
was perfectly harmless. In Henry VIII. 's time, 
however, the art of fencing was introduced; and 
in the time of Elizabeth, the use of the rapier and 
the deadly thrust, rendered the acquirement of the 
art of fence a matter of the first importance to 
noblemen and gentlemen. 

But though the chivalric exercises died out in 
this age, never was the love of pageant and dis- 
play more thoroughly alive. The revival of the 
Greek literature brought forward a crowd of gods 
and goddesses, who figured in public processions 
and galas ; and the strangest allegorical absurdi- 
ties were gazed at by grave princes and their 
counsellors, as well as by the ladies, with all the 
enthusiasm of country lads and lasses gaping at 
the actors of a strolling theatre, or the marionettes 
of a puppet-show. 

Any one who chooses to wade through worthy 
Laneham's description of the nineteen days in 
which Queen Bess was entertained at Kenil- 
worth by Leicester, will find his fill of giants, 



198 MARKERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

distressed ladies of the lake, floating islands, and 
sham Arions riding on sham dolphins, &c. More 
healthy, but little less romantic, were the holiday 
sports which had survived the church, and in 
which mingled the princes, nobles, and people. 
The old mystery did not for some time disappear 
before the secular drama, and the Coventry Play 
was played before Elizabeth at Kenilworth. May- 
day had still its grand May-pole ; and Henry VIII. 
did not disdain, on May-day, 1515, "to go a- 
maying " to Shooter's Hill, with his queen and his 
sister, the queen-dowager of France. May-day 
was also the great day of the milkmaids, who 
danced from door to door with a pyramid of plate 
on their heads. 

To relate all the jollities with which Christmas 
was celebrated is beyond our space. The Christ- 
mas carols, with which the wakes or waits awoke 
all the sleeping people for a fortnight before — the 
Lord of Misrule, whose reign was from All-Hallow 
Eve to Pentecost — the yule-log dragged into the 
hall and piled on the fire — the boar's-head feast, 
with plum-pudding and mince pies; and various 
dances and games, were as much in fashion as in 
the days of the ancient church. Plough Monday, 
St. Valentine's Day, Easter and Whitsuntide, St. 
John's Eve, and all the charities of Maunday 
Thursday, were still maintained in all their ancient 
glory. Even Palm Sunday, when the figure of 
Christ went in procession mounted on a wooden 
ass, resisted the reformation till the year 1548, or 
nearly to the end of Edward VI/s reign ! 

The drama, which was now shaping itself into 
freedom and splendour under such men as Shake- 
speare, Jonson, and Marlowe, was yet conducted in 
a very rude style. The theatres were mostly of 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 199 

wood ; the actors were rarely arrayed in proper 
costume; women's parts were represented by boys ; 
and any scenery which the play had, remained, like 
a picture on a country fair booth, throughout the 
whole piece. The aristocratic frequenters sat on 
the stage, for there were no boxes or dress circle, 
and the "gods" sat on stools, and enjoyed their 
pipes and beer during the performance. But when 
the regular dramatic pieces had once gained 
possession of the stage, their progress was indeed 
rapid. The people hailed them with pleasure. 
The earliest patent for acting plays is dated in 
1574 ; but very soon afterwards, at least fifteen 
licensed theatres were open to the inhabitants of 
London. The best plays were acted at the 
Blackfriars' theatre, which was crowded daily with 
people of all ranks. The price of admittance to 
the best places at the best theatres was, as late as 
1614, only one shilling; and at the inferior ones, 
a penny or twopence would procure admission to 
a pretty good place. Before the exhibition began, 
three pieces of music were usually played; the 
instruments chiefly used being trumpets, cornets, 
and hautboys. The person who spoke the prologue 
was ushered in by trumpets, and wore a long black 
velvet cloak. Plays began about one o'clock 
in the afternoon, and generally lasted about 
two hours. One dramatic piece composed the 
whole entertainment. But the theatre had to 
contend in the affections of the public with the 
bear-garden, bull-baiting, and cock-fighting ; even 
the most wealthy people patronised these disgusting 
amusements. As Sunday had been the great clay 
of the church-plays or mysteries, so Sunday was 
the chief day of the theatre, which eventually 
brought it into disrepute with the serious portion 



200 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

of the community. When bull-baiting was 
announced for a Sunday, the theatre was closed, 
that it might not interfere with the more intel- 
lectual entertainments ! Queen Elizabeth was 
especially fond of the bear-garden, and that sport 
was consequently included by Leicester in the 
recreations which he provided for her at Kenil- 
worth. In fact, bear-gardens, cock-pits, bowling- 
greens, tennis-courts, dicing-houses, taverns, smok- 
ing ordinaries, and the like, abounded, giving us 
a fair idea of the taste of that golden age. 
Hunting and hawking were still pastimes of the 
gentry, and horse-races became a great rage ; the 
first mention of them being on the occasion just 
mentioned, when Henry went a-maying in 1515, 
when it is said that Henry and his brother-in-law, 
the duke of Suffolk, ended the day by u racing on 
great coursers.'' In fact, the taste of this remark- 
able age was in reality of a very low type — 
sensual, empty, and vulgar ; of a stamp, indeed, 
which none but the lowest of our present popula- 
tion could for a moment endure — a fact marking 
the immense advance, since then, of refinement in 
mind and in morals among the English. A people 
any purer and more humane, could not, in truth, 
have existed amid the daily spectacles which sur- 
rounded them — the heads of traitors stuck on gate 
and bridge, the bloody execution of queens and 
nobles, and crowds of wretches dangling from a 
thousand gibbets. The flaming stake, the branding- 
iron, the scourge, and the stocks, were the most 
familiar objects to a people who required a 
Shakespeare to interlard his finest tragedies with 
harlequins and fools.* 

Among the customs of this period, there was no 

* William Howitt. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 201 

one more prominent nor more lasting, than that of 
smoking tobacco. This herb was brought to 
England in 1596 by the remnant of Sir Walter 
Raleigh's unfortunate settlers in Virginia. Raleigh 
himself was one of its first admirers ; but for some 
time he kept his attachment to it a secret. At 
last the foible was discovered by an amusing' 
accident. The story goes, that as he was enjoying" 
his pipe in solitude, forgetful that he had ordered 
his servant to bring him a goblet of ale, the 
faithful domestic entered the study, and finding, 
as he thought, his master's brains on fire, and 
evaporating in smoke and flame through his 
nostrils, did his utmost to extinguish the confla- 
gration, by emptying the goblet on his master's 
head ; and, rushing out of the room, alarmed the 
family with an account of the frightful scene he 
had witnessed ! After that event, Sir Walter 
Raleigh made no secret of smoking tobacco. 
Indeed, some years afterwards, he smoked two 
pipes publicly on the scaffold. 

Coffee was imported from Arabia in the time 
of Henry VI. Many sermons against coffee- 
drinking are extant, written at the time it was 
introduced into Europe, as there are also many 
sermons against smoking. We recollect having 
read the following passage — u They cannot wait 
until the smoke of the infernal regions surrounds 
them, but encompass themselves with smoke of 
their own accord, and drink a poison which God 
made black, that it might bear the devil's colour." 

Shillings were first issued in the reign of Henry 
VII. ; they were only half their present size and 
value. In 1546, a law w r as made for fixing the 
interest of money at ten per cent. This was the 
first legal interest known in England. For- 



202 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

nierly all laws of that nature were regarded as 
usurious. The preamble of this very law treats 
the interest of money as illegal and criminal, and 
the prejudices against it still remained so strong 
that the law permitting interest was repealed in 
the next reign. The pound sterling was first 
called a sovereign in the reign of the eighth Henry. 
In the reign of Edward VI., crowns, half-crowns, 
and sixpenny pieces were first issued. 

In the time of Henry VIII. a law was passed 
to fix the price of provisions, and so forth. The 
price of two pounds of beef or mutton was one 
penny ; the same quantity of veal or pork cost a 
penny farthing. Master workmen had fourpence 
a day ; others had threepence. In the early part 
of this period exportation of horses was prohibit- 
ed. In order to promote archery, no bows were 
allowed to be sold at a higher price than six 
shillings and fourpence. Prices were also fixed 
by law on woollen cloth, caps, and hats, &c. 

In the reign of Henry VII., the Star Chamber 
court was instituted, for the trial of crown officers 
and offences against government. This oppressive 
court, presided over by the king, was abolished in 
the reign of Charles I. It was so called, because 
the contracts of the Jews — called starra — were 
kept in a chest there. 

At the coronation of Henry VII., the Yeomen of 
the Guard were established, who, besides guarding 
the king, waited at table ; and from attending to 
the duties of the buffette, buffets, or sideboards, 
received the name of buffetiers, now corrupted into 
" beef-eaters." These buffetiers composed the first 
standing army. There were fifty of them, each of 
whom was six feet high. 

In the same reign, America, the East and West 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 203 

Indies, and the Cape of Good Hope, were discover- 
ed. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, 
first discovered the islands contiguous to North 
America, on the 12th of October, 1492. Sebastian 
Cabot first landed on the continent of North 
America. Americus Vesputius gave his name to 
the new world; though it ought, in justice, to 
have been called after the persevering and brave 
Columbus. 

The following events, &c, occurred in the reign 
of Henry VIII.:— 

The secretary of state was first appointed. 
The religious order called the Jesuits, or order of 
Jesus, was founded by a Spaniard, named Ignatius 
Loyola, a.d. 1535. Wales was first represented 
by members of parliament in 1535. The corpora- 
tion called the Brethren of the Trinity, in London, 
was founded. Its object was to superintend the 
interests of the British shipping, appoint pilots 
for the Thames, erect lighthouses, and grant 
licences to poor seamen to row on the Thames. 
Henry assumed the new style of address — " Your 
most gracious majesty/' Before his reign the 
English kings were styled, " Your Grace," or 
" Your Highness." He also called himself king, 
instead of lord, of Ireland. 

This king expended £14,000 in building a ship, 
called " The Great Harry," which was, correctly 
speaking, the first ship in the English navy; 
formerly our kings either hired or pressed ships 
from the merchants. In the time of good Queen 
Bess the navy had increased from one to forty-two 
vessels. None of the ships carried above forty 
guns ; indeed, four only came up to that number ; 
but such was the power and valour of the fleet at 
this time, that we find Elizabeth was called the 



204: MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

" queen of the seas." The greatest naval feat in 
her reign was the destruction of u the invincible 
armada " — a vast fleet gathered together by Philip 
of Spain, Mary's husband, to exterminate the 
reformation in the British empire. This great 
fleet consisted of one hundred and thirty gigantic 
ships, as well as a large number of boats and flat- 
bottomed transports. The English navy at this 
period, comprised only twenty-eight frigates, but 
many other vessels were built and manned by 
private individuals. 

" No person, by himself, or his servant, or other 
person, for his gain, hiring, or living, was to keep 
any house, alley, or place of bowling, quoits, 
tennis, dicing-table, cards, or any other unlawful 
game, under penalty of forty shillings per day, 
and of six-and-eightpence to every such person 
playing. All justices, mayors, and head officers, 
were empowered to enter any house and search for 
such offenders, and commit them till they gave 
security not to offend again. Officers were to 
make a strict search once a month, or were, them- 
selves to suffer a penalty of forty shillings. Work- 
men, apprentices, and husbandmen were only 
allowed to play at such games during Christmas, 
and then only in their masters' houses or presence." 

Another statute of this reign introduces the 
earliest notice of a singular people — the gipsies. 
It was enacted in the 22nd of Henry VIII., that 
"persons calling themselves Egyptians, who had 
lately come into the country, used no trade, and 
practised no handicraft, but wandered from shire 
to shire in great companies, pretending to tell 
fortunes, and committing many felonies and 
robberies, should be allowed sixteen days to 
depart, and if found in it after that time, should 



THE ENGLISH NATION* 205 

be imprisoned and deprived of all their goods and 
chattels ; and all sheriffs and justices of the peace 
were commanded to seize all such Egyptians 
thereafter coming into the country, if they did not 
depart within fifteen days, and appropriate their 
effects to the king's use." The continuance of this 
nomadic tribe on our heaths and commons to the 
present day, is evidence that the statute of Henry 
took no effect upon them.* 

The suppression of the convents by Henry VIII., 
produced great distress and discontent amongst 
the poor. Upwards of 50,000 of the aged, sick, 
and poor, were turned out of those establishments. 
In the fifth year of the reign of Elizabeth, the 
first law was enacted for the relief of the poor. 

Pins were introduced from France by Catherine 
Howard, the fifth wife of Henry VIII. Before 
her time, ribbons, loops, laces, clasps, and wooden 
skewers, were used as fastenings for ladies' dresses. 
For many years pins were considered a great 
luxury, and ladies used to receive from their hus- 
bands or parents an annual allowance to furnish 
themselves with pins; hence a woman's pocket- 
money is still occasionally called u pin-money/' 

In the reign of Elizabeth knives were made. 
These were the first articles of cutlery manufactured 
in England. In the same reign were introduced 
pocket watches from Germany, fans, muffs, and 
false hair from Italy, and carriages from France. 
The stocking-frame, sail-cloths, needles, stops in 
printing, newspapers, fire-ships, and paper-mills, 
were also invented. About this time the Rev. 
W. Lee of Nottingham invented the stocking- 
frame. The story of this invention is w x ell known : 
how, sitting beside his young wife, and watching 

* Pic. Hist, of Eng,, Vol. II., p. 575. 



206 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

her nimble fingers as she knit a stocking, he 
bethought him of a plan by which all that minute 
and sedentary labour might be saved. After much 
thought and frequent disappointments, he pro- 
duced the stocking-loom. But he quickly dis- 
covered that his work was unappreciated. As 
soon as his invention was made known, the 
stocking-knitters drove him from England, through 
fear of his invention ruining their trade. Poor 
Lee went to France, where he was treated no 
better, and died of a broken heart, and in the 
greatest poverty. This is what history says ; 
tradition tells a different tale. The origin of his 
invention is attributed to a pique he had against 
a townswoman with whom he was in love, and 
who it appears u neglected his passion." She got 
her livelihood by knitting stockings, and, with the 
ungenerous object of depreciating her employ- 
ment, he constructed this frame, first working at 
it himself, and then teaching his brother and other 
relations. The first story, however, seems most 
probable. Stowe informs us, that Lee not only 
manufactured stockings in his frame, but also 
Ct waistcoats and divers other things." Needles 
were invented in the time of Edward VI., but the 
art of making them died with the inventor. 
Elias Growse, a German, recovered the art of 
making them, and carried on his trade at Buck- 
ingham, where there is even now a large needle 
manufactory. The first newspapers were printed 
and circulated to apprise the nation of the defeat 
of the Spanish Armada; but we hear nothing 
more of them till the reign of Charles I., in 1642. 
The first paper-mill was established at Dart ford 
in Kent, by a German, who was knighted by 
Elizabeth for his invention. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 207 

In the reign of Edward VI., a law was made 
respecting slaves. If a slave ran away from his 
master, he was to be branded on his breast or fore- 
head with hot irons, and fed on bread and water. 
That most unnatural and abominable traffic, the 
slave trade, was introduced in Elizabeth's reign, by 
John Hawkins of Devonshire, who fitted out a 
vessel to seize African negroes, and to sell them to 
the Spaniards in America. This scandalous trade 
in human life was abolished in England in the 
reign of George III., 1807, and two years afterwards 
it was abolished in France, Spain, and Holland. 
In 1526, an attempt was made to extinguish 
slavery, but it failed : and even Cromwell, after 
the battle of Dunbar, in 1650, sent his Scottish 
prisoners as slaves to the West Indian colonies. 
It was finally abolished in England by law in the 
reign of Charles II., though the colliers in Scotland 
were bondsmen till the year 1775. Free work- 
men are first noticed as a distinct class in 1350 ; 
and then laws were passed regulating the wages 
for each trade, and the kind of apparel that the 
people should wear. They were prohibited by a 
law, passed in 1388, from moving from place to 
place, and were to be paid in money or provisions, 
at the choice of their employers. In 1363 a law 
was passed declaring that artificers and servants 
are to be served once a day with meat and fish, or 
the waste of victuals, as milk and cheese ; to wear 
cloth not exceeding twelvepence per yard in price. 
Carters, ploughmen, neatherds, and other agricul- 
tural labourers, were to wear black russet, not ex- 
ceeding one shilling per yard.* 

In the short reign of Edward VI., a law was 
passed permitting the clergy to marry! The 
*Langford — English Democracy — pp. 10, 11. 



208 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

lords-lieutenant of the counties were then also 
first appointed, whose duties are to manage the 
militia, grant commissions to its officers, and in 
case of rebellion to act as colonels. It was in this 
reign, too, that the sons of peers were permitted to 
sit in the lower house. Lord Francis Russell was 
the first nobleman who availed himself of this 
privilege. 

In Mary's reign there was a remarkable shower 
of hail ; it is said that hailstones fell in Notting- 
ham half a pound in weight. 

Sir Francis Drake, a native of Devonshire, was 
the first Englishman who sailed round the world. 
He completed his voyage in three years. 

Elizabeth granted monopolies to several com- 
panies. Among others to the East India Com- 
pany, to which was confined the exclusive right 
of trading in the East Indies, a right which has 
in modern times been gradually withdrawn, till in 
the present day the old trading company is power- 
less for good or evil. The Custom-House, the 
Stock Exchange, and the university of Dublin, 
were founded in the same reign. The first Royal 
Exchange was built by Sir Thomas Gresham of 
Norfolk. He was called the " Royal Merchant " 
for his munificent charities. He, in fact, it was 
who laid the foundation of England's commercial 
greatness. 

In 1544 good lands were let at one shilling per 
acre. Commodities, however, were not cheap in 
proportion, owing in a great measure to the indif- 
ferent husbandry of that age. 

In 1588, the Chest at Chatham was established, 
which, by means of a small deduction from the 
pay of every seaman, provides a yearly allowance 
for the wounded. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 209 

In 1589, coaches were first introduced into 
England. 

The hackney coach act passed in 1693, and in 
the year 1770 there were as many as 1100 hackney- 
carriages in use in England, principally in the 
metropolis. 

In the time of Elizabeth, tea was brought from 
China by the Dutch, but it was scarcely known in 
England till the reign of Charles II. ; even as 
late as the fire of London a pound of " China tea " 
was considered a handsome present. 

Woolsacks in the House of Lords date their 
origin from the time of Elizabeth. 

When an act of parliament was passed to pre- 
vent the exportation of wool, woolsacks were 
placed in the House of Lords, whereon the Lord 
Chancellor sat. The object was to commemorate 
this source of our national wealth. In our day 
the woolsack is a handsome cushioned seat, from 
which the principal law lords usually address the 
House of Peers. 

The phrase, " hear, hear !" was now first used 
in parliament "to remind members of the duty 
of attending to the discussion ;" but gradually it 
became what we now find it — a cry indicative, 
according to the tone in which it is uttered, of 
admiration, acquiescence, indignation, or decision. 

In this period lived u The Admirable Crichton," 
who was born in Perthshire in 1551, and educated 
at St. Andrew's College ; before he was twenty 
years of age he had run through the whole circle 
of sciences, in addition to which he was an 
accomplished gentleman. He went to Paris, where 
he challenged all the scholars to dispute with him 
in any art or science, and in any language, ancient 
or modern. Having managed this disputation 



210 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

with great success, from nine in the morning till 
six in the evening, the professors presented him 
with a diamond ring and a purse of gold. The 
next day he went to a tilting match, and in pre- 
sence of the court carried off the prize fifteen times 
successively. From thence he went to Rome, 
where he disputed in the presence of the Pope and 
the cardinals. On he went, surprising every body, 
and becoming popular in all the seats of continen- 
tal learning. In Venice he became intimate with 
the learned Aldus Manutius, the printer, who de- 
dicated to him, in a very adulatory tone, the 
Paradoxes of Cicero. At Mantua he is said to 
have slain a famous doctor in a duel. The Duke 
of Mantua was so pleased with Crichton that he 
appointed him tutor to his son, a licentious young 
man. This appointment proved fatal to him ; for 
one night, as he was walking through the streets at 
carnival time, he was attacked by six ruffians, and, 
after a gallant defence, lost his life. His assas- 
sin is believed to have been the prince, his degene- 
rate pupil. This event took place in the year 
1583. Four of his Latin poems are extant, but 
they exhibit no trace of that wonderful knowledge 
and skill for w r hich he has obtained so marvellous 
a reputation.* 

The most remarkable event, or rather series of 
events, that ever occurred in England, or perhaps 
in the world, took place about this time. We 
need scarcely say that we refer to the Reformation. 
Martin Luther is said to have been the first man 
who had the courage to attack the doctrines and 
practices of the Church of Rome, and his example 
was speedily followed by others, so that the Papacy 
received a blow from which it has never since re- 

* Timperley's History of Printing. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 2 1 1 

covered. Whilst Luther was exposing the Church 
of Rome, Henry VIII. denied the Pope's supre- 
macy, and proclaimed himself u head of the Eng- 
lish Church." Henry also gave the people per- 
mission to read the Bible in their own language — 
a boon never before granted by any sovereign. 
A Bible was chained to the reading-desk of every 
parish church in the country, and, as general access 
was given to this parish Bible at all hours of the 
day, the church was daily crowded, and thou- 
sands learned to read for the sole purpose of read- 
ing the Scriptures. The Reformers were called 
Protestants, because at the Diet of Spires, in Ger- 
many, they entered their " protest " against the 
decree, " That all reform in religion is unlawful." 
Henry VIII. destroyed 3000 abbeys, monasteries, 
and convents — pensioned off their inmates, and 
seized their treasures. The value of the church 
property seized by the king amounted to £8,000,000, 
according to the present worth of money. 

u Whilst Edward VI. thoroughly established 
protestantism, Mary as completely reinstated 
popery, and with a series of horrors which stamped 
terror and aversion of Catholic ascendancy for 
ever deep in the spirit of this nation. The num- 
ber of persons who died in the flames in that awful 
reign, for their faith and the freedom of conscience, 
is stated to be two hundred and eighty-eight ; but 
Lord Burleigh estimated those who perished by 
fire, torture, famine, and imprisonment, at not less 
than four hundred." * 

Besides these, vast numbers suffered cruelly in a 
variety of ways. '' Some of the professors were 
thrown into dungeons, noisome holes, dark, loath- 
some, and stinking corners ; others lying in fetters 

* Pict. Hist, of Eng.— Vol. II., p. 582. 



212 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

and chains, and loaded with so many irons that they 
could scarcely stir. Some tied in the stocks with 
their heels upwards ; some having their legs in the 
stocks, with their necks chained to the wall with 
gorgets of iron ; some with hands and legs in the 
stocks at once ; sometimes both hands in and both 
legs out ; sometimes the right hand with the left 
leg, or the left hand with the right leg, fastened 
in the stocks with manacles and fetters, having 
neither stool nor stone to sit on to ease their 
woeful bodies ; some standing in Skevington's 
gives — commonly called Skevington's daughter — 
which were most painful engines of iron, with 
their bodies doubled ; some whipped and scourged, 
beaten with rods, and buffeted with fists ; and 
some having their hands burned with a candle to 
try their patience, and force them to relent ; some 
hunger-pined, and some miserably famished and 
starved." * 

Elizabeth renounced all allegiance to Rome, 
though she hesitated to declare herself supreme 
head of the English Church till the title was con- 
ferred upon her by parliament. Elizabeth was no 
real reformer, though she doubtless acted up to 
the light she possessed. She laid the press under 
the most rigorous restrictions. No book was 
allowed to be printed or published without the 
licence of the queen, or permission obtained from 
the persons named by her for that purpose. She 
carried the reformation at the point of the sword. 
The people were commanded to attend their 
parish churches under severe penalties. In the 
twenty-third year of her reign, the penalty for 
non-attendance at the established church was 
raised to £20 per month ! Like her father, the 

* Coyerdale. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 2 13 

longer she lived the more resolute she became in 
enforcing her own peculiar dogmas on the whole 
body of her subjects. She had no notion of the 
freedom of the press, or liberty of conscience — 
except for herself ! In 1 562, King Edward's forty- 
two articles of religion were reduced to thirty- 
nine — their present number. In 1571 they under- 
went a further revision, and were made binding 
on the clergy, who were forced to subscribe to 
them before they could be admitted to holy 
orders. The church of England still adheres to 
the canon of Elizabeth. 

The great, noble, and divine principle of the 
entire liberty of the gospel, was one too elevated 
to be arrived at suddenly after so many ages of 
spiritual despotism, and required long and earnest 
study of the spirit and example of our Lord, 
severe struggles and bloody deaths, and incredible 
sufferings in those who came to see the sublime 
truth, before the battle of religious freedom was 
fought out, and all parties could admit the truth 
which had revealed itself to Charles V., when he 
amused himself with clock-making — that as no two 
clocks can be made to go precisely alike, so it is 
folly to expect all men to think in precisely the 
same manner. 

The period we have just reverted to was marked 
by vast progress, and by changes which were the 
springs of still more wonderful advances in after 
ages. Mighty were the revolutions in politics, 
religion, literature, philosophy, and morals, which 
had their origin in this period of our history. 
The violent, passionate, sensual, and arbitrary 
Henry the Eighth hesitated not to renounce alle- 
giance to that great spiritual power which for 
above a thousand years had ruled haughtily over 



214 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Europe and all its kings and warriors. 6i By this 
deed he set free for ever the mind and conscience 
of the nation. In vain did he endeavour to bind 
them down in a knot of his own making. Though 
he hurled his fiercest terms against those who 
instantly claimed a liberty, which he intended only 
for himself, he had broken the mighty spell of 
ages — a pow r er and a mystery before which the 
world had bowed in impotent awe ; and no chains 
w T hich he could forge, no creed which he could set 
up, no hierarchy which he could frame, could pos- 
sess more than the strength of the fire-scorched 
flax against the will of the enfranchised people. 
He had let loose the flood of religious desire, 
which had age-long been dashing moodily against 
the old mounds of superstition; and he might as 
well have attempted to stem the current of the 
Thames with a hurdle as to re-imprison the public 
mind." * 

It will scarcely be credited, says Howitt, that 
at the close of the Wars of the Roses the whole 
population of England and Wales did not exceed 
two millions and a half — about the present popu- 
lation of London. But in 1575, that is, in the 
seventeenth year of Elizabeth's reign, the men fit 
to bear arms alone amounted to 1,172,674, and 
the entire population to not less than five millions. 
Harrison, in his " Description of England * at this 
time, says, that "some do grudge at the great in- 
crease of people in these days, thinking a necessary 
herd of cattle far better than a superfluous aug- 
mentation of n*ankind. They laid/' he informs us, 
" the cause upon God, as though he were in fault 
for sending such increase of people, or want of wars 
that should consume them;" affirming that "the 
* Progress of the Nation, Vol. II., p. 569. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 215 

land was never so full." So little did our fore- 
fathers comprehend that the multitude of people, 
properly employed, were the strength and wealth 
of the nation ! 

The system of legislation "which sought by 
artificial means to determine the price of goods, 
and fix the rate of wages, was unremittingly pur- 
sued in this and the next four or five reigns. Nay, 
so late as the time of Charles II., a bench of 
magistrates had power to determine in their 
respective counties what wages farm-labourers 
should receive per week ; and it is only by slow 
degrees that sounder views of the office and 
functions of government have made themselves 
heard in the councils of the realm. The act 
giving this power, is the well-known statute 
5 Elizabeth, c. 4, and it long continued in opera- 
tion, with others of a similar character. Trade was, 
however, shaking off some of its trammels, and 
demands were being made for a higher rate of 
wages for many of the handicrafts, while com- 
plaints of the cupidity of capitalists were very 
bitter and severe. The dispute has continued till 
to-day, and as yet offers little hope of a happy and 
amicable termination." * 

To show the progress of the people, we mention 
the following facts : — At various times, as in 1496 
and 1514, acts were passed with the vain object of 
keeping down wages, attempts which, though they 
show very little progress in political economy, 
give evidence that, in proportion to labour, employ- 
ers were more numerous than they had been. 
In 1500 the wages of a master mason were 6d. 
a-day; in 1575 they were doubled; and in 1590 
they had reached Is. 2d. The w^ages of common 

* Langford — Eng. Democracy, p. 21. 



216 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

labourers had risen from 6d. a-day to lOd. In 
1511 the salary of a domestic priest was £3, 6s. 8d. ; 
in 1545 it had risen to £4, 14s. 6d. In 1544 
the wages of sailors in the royal navy were 
advanced from 5s. per month to 6s. 8d., and all 
other trades and professions exhibited a like 
advance in rates of wages and payment for labour. 
This of course was the result of the gradual rise 
in the prices of provisions, rents, and clothing — 
another proof that the people had become not 
only more numerous, but more luxurious, and 
therefore exigent of better diet and accommodation. 
Wheat, the great staple of the people's food, 
had advanced from 3s. 4d. a quarter in 1485, to 
17s. in 1589 ; £2, 2s. in 1596; and £1, 7s. in 1599. 
It is true the price of wheat greatly varied in this 
period ; but, except in a very few seasons, it never 
approached the low price of the previous century. 
In 1587, a year of much scarcity, it actually rose 
to £5, 4s. In 1500 a dozen pigeons were sold for 
4d. ; in 1541 they were not to be bought for less 
than lOd. ; in 1590 they were Is.; and in 1597, a 
year of scarcity, 4s. 3d. In 1500 a hundred eggs 
could be purchased for 6d. ; in 1541 the price had 
risen to Is. 2d. ; and in 1597 they could not be 
obtained for less than 3s. A good fat goose in 
the year 1500 cost only 4d. ; but in 1541 it cost 
8d.; and in 1589, Is. 2d. A fat sheep in 1500 
was worth Is. 8d. ; in 1549 it sold at rates vary- 
ing from 2s. 4d. to 4s.; and in 1597, the dear 
year, a sheep could not be had under 14s. 6d. In 
1500 an ox could be purchased for lis. or 12s. ; 
in 1541 its price had advanced to from £1 to £2 ; 
in 1597 a single stone of beef was 2s., and a whole 
fat ox upwards of i?5. 

At the beginning of this period, the houses of 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 217 

farmers were generally built of timber, and those 
of labourers of mud, or wattle and mud. Many 
of them had no chimneys, and some had only one 
for cooking. Trenchers and spoons of wood were 
used instead of pewter or earthenware ; and a 
yeoman who had half a dozen pewter dishes in his 
house was looked upon as a wealthy man. The 
lodging of the people was generally inelegant 
and comfortless. Straw beds and pillows of chaff 
were most common; flock beds were a rural 
luxury. Farm-servants lay on straw, and often 
had not even a coverlet to throw over them. The 
bread of the poor was made of rye, barley, or oats, 
and in many places of peas or beans : the wealthy 
only ate of wheaten bread. Agricultural labourers, 
by the fireside in the evenings, after their day's 
work, made their own shoes, or prepared the yokes 
for oxen and their ploughing-gear. The women 
made ready the wool, and the hemp or flax for 
the weaver, at the spinning-wheel. They work- 
ed much in the fields, as they do now on the 
continent. The first of our writers on husbandry 
tells us, that it was the business of the farmer's 
wife " to winnow all manner of corn, to make 
malt, to wash, to make hay, shear corn, and in 
time of need help her husband to fill the muck- 
wain or dung-cart, drive the plough, to load hay 
or corn, to go to market and sell butter, or pigs, 
or fowls.* Latimer, who was a farmer's son, 
describes the advance in the value of land in his 
time. When he was young his father's farm was 
rented by him at four pounds a year ; he employed 
half a dozen men upon it, and had one hundred 
sheep and thirty cows. His father managed to 
send him to school and college, and to give to each 

* Fitzherbert. 

P 



218 HANNEKS AND CUSTOMS OF 

of his daughters five pounds on her marriage. 
But, continues Latimer, at the time he wrote this, 
the same farm was charged sixteen pounds a year, 
or fourfold, and that the farmer of it could do 
nothing for his prince, himself, or his children, nor 
give a cup of drink to the poor. 

The evil produced its own remedy. The 
scarcity of land raised the price of produce, and 
that stimulated men to the manuring and more 
perfect culture of the land. Towards the end of 
this period things greatly improved. Farmers 
and small builders became more painstaking and 
skilful. In the autumn they cured bacon and 
beef for the winter ; and in summer they had 
abundance of veal, beef, mutton &c, which, 
Harrison tells us, they ceased to baste with! lard 
in cooking, but basted with butter, or suffered the 
fattest to baste itself. With their living, their 
houses also improved. Wood or wattle, in the 
course of time, gave way to stone or brick ; wooden 
trenchers were superseded at substantial tables 
by pewter plates ; and, with the pewter, articles of 
silver began gradually to be introduced. Feather 
beds replaced straw and chaff mattresses ; linen 
was used in greater abundance; and bed-covers 
and better clothing came into general use among 
the well-to-do. Coal was worked in considerable 
quantities, and the scarcity of wood was less felt 
in consequence. 

Frequent mention is made by the writers of 
this period, of vagabond tribes which overran the 
country, carrying terror and crime wherever they 
went. Harrison says that, in the reign of Henry 
VIII., the king hanged, of robbers, thieves, and 
vagabonds, no fewer than 72,000; and that 
Elizabeth, in the latter part of her reign, sent 



THE ENGLISH NATION". 219 

three or four hundred of them annually to the 
gallows. Henry passed many severe statutes, 
ordering the whipping, cutting off of ears, and 
hanging of those wretched people. Edward VI. 
ordered them to be branded with the letter V. 
(for villain) on the chest, and then to be handed 
over to masters, from whom, if they ran away, they 
were to be branded on the cheek with an S, for slave 
— any attempt to escape from such slavery being 
death. To mitigate this terrible state of things, 
Henry, in 1530, gave the sick and impotent 
permission to beg ; and in 1535 magistrates and 
the clergy were ordered to make collections for 
their relief. These were the first approaches to 
a national poor-law. In 1562 Elizabeth passed an 
act making parochial assessments for the poor 
compulsory. The poor-law, therefore, in reality 
dates from that period; but, in 1601, the cele- 
brated act of the 43rd of Elizabeth organized and 
completed that system of employing and maintain- 
ing the destitute poor, which has remained ever 
since the law of England. 

Such was the sixteenth century in England — 
a period more remarkable than any which had 
gone before it, and which, with all its dark and 
repulsive features, was the gloomy dawn of the 
glorious day we now enjoy.* 

♦William Howitt. 



220 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 



CHAPTER VII. 

Manners and Customs, &c., of the English from 1603 to the present 
time— during the reigns of James I., Charles I., the Common- 
wealth, Charles II., James II., William III. and Mary, Ann, the 
four Georges, William IV., and Victoria. 

The morality of the English, during the early 
part of the period now under review, was any thing 
but what it ought to have been. We have said 
elsewhere, that the national morality was extremely 
low "from the restoration of Charles II., in 1660, 
to the reign of George II. ; a period of about 
seventy years. Then freedom of inquiry was 
detested — wit, learning, and morality despised — 
cant and hypocrisy were alone encouraged. In 
this period lived Pope, Swift, Dryden, Young, and 
Gay ; and during this time the national morality was 
at its lowest ebb. The number of vices which well 
deserved to be asailed was so great, that it was an 
age well calculated to develop an assailing spirit 
in men of talent, learning, and eloquence. Authors 
were in a position to see the crimes and follies of 
all sorts of men, but especially men in high life. 
They found men busy in knavery and intrigue ; 
pursuing selfish ends by unscrupulous means; 
looking upon virtue and honour as things of no 
importance whatever ; counting religion as a very 
good thing for the poor, but of no use whatever to 
the rich ; men hiding their hatred in a smile, and 
their infamy in a bow. These men saw that the 
star of the earl, the ermine of the judge, and the 
surplice of the priest, instead of representing truth, 
nobility, justice, and mercy, were badges of un- 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 221 

godliness, blasphemy, infamy; in short, of feelings 
the most beggarly, bastardly, and cursed. Our 
own dramatists and foreign writers describe the 
morals and manners of women of rank as almost 
destitute of delicacy and probity. They are 
described as mingling with men in taverns, amid 
tobacco smoke, obscene songs, and conversation of 
the most ribald character. We are also told that 
they allowed freedoms which would startle the 
poorest women in our day ; that they were despe- 
rate gamblers; and that both fc/ ladies and gentlemen 
in high life ' made debauchery and villany quite 
fashionable. Gondomar, a Spanish ambassador, 
boasts of the effect of the bribes that he was 
accustomed to distribute amongst them. Howell 
tells us that the character of Englishmen on their 
travels was expressed in an Italian proverb — 

* Inglese Italianato 
E Diavolo incarnato ' — 

an Italianized Englishman is a devil incarnate ! 
This saying arose from the debauched conduct of 
young Englishmen on their travels. At home 
they were a contemptible mixture of foppery and 
profanity. One of the men who led the fashion 
was the charming Buckingham, who went to 
Spain with Charles I. a wife-hunting." His 
extravagance, his amours, his haughty bearing, 
and unceremonious treatment of both his own 
prince and the grandees of Spain, astonished 
Madrid. He introduced the very worst people, 
men and women, into the palace, and w r ould sit 
with his hat on when the prince himself was un- 
covered. His behaviour in the presence of the 
king of Spain was just as irreverent, and the 
minister, Olivarez, was so incensed at his insolence 



222 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

that he detested him. He had the soul of an 
upstart lackey under the title of a duke, and was 
never easy unless he could outshine all the gran- 
dees of the Spanish court. He was perpetually 
importuning the king to send over orders, jewels, 
and money. Georges and garters were sent over 
in numbers to confer on different courtiers, and 
the constant cry of Buckingham's letters was 
jewels, jewels, jewels ! He represented how rich 
the Spaniards were in jewels, and how poor those 
looked which they themselves already had. He 
describes the prince as quite poor in his appear- 
ance, compared with the Spanish splendour. 
" Sir, he hath neither chain nor hat-band, and I 
beseech you consider first how rich they are in 
jewels here; then in what a poor equipage he 
came in ; how he hath no other means to appear 
like a king's son ; how they are usefullest at such 
a time as this, when you may do yourself, your son, 
and the nation honour ; and lastly, how it will 
neither cost nor hazard you any thing. These 
reasons, I hope, since you have already ventured 
your chiefest jewel, your son, will serve to per- 
suade you to let loose these more after him : — 
first, your best hat-band, the Portugal diamond, 
the rest of the pendent diamonds to make up a 
necklace to give his mistress, and the best rope of 
pearl, with a rich chain or two for himself to wear, 
or else your dog must want a collar, which is the 
ready way to put him into it. There are many 
other jewels, which are of so mean quality as 
deserve not that name, but will save much in your 
purse, and serve very well for presents,"* &c. In 
a manuscript in the Harleian Library is given the 
following description of the dress of George 

* Howitt— Pic. Hist, of Eng., Vol III., p. 96. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 223 

Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, the prince of fops 
in the reign of James I. " It was common with 
him at any ordinary dancing to have his clothes 
trimmed with great diamond buttons, and to 
have diamond hat-bands, cockades, and earrings ; 
to be yoked with great and manifold knots of 
pearl; in short, to be manacled, fettered, and 
imprisoned in jewels ; insomuch that, in going to 
Paris in 1625, he had twenty-seven suits of 
clothes made, the richest that embroidery, lace, 
silk, velvet, gold, and gems could contribute ; one 
of which was a white uncut velvet, set all over, 
both suit and cloak, with diamonds, valued at 
fourteen thousand pounds, besides a great feather 
stuck all over with diamonds, as were also his 
sword, girdle, hat-band, and spurs." * Such was 
the character of dandy Buckingham ! 

It was at the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
tury that fops and dandies patched their faces 
with black plaster, because the officers who had 
served in the German wars wore such patches to 
cover their scars. The ladies did the same, though 
from what motive is not apparent. The unmanly 
and insane practice of duelling was fashionable at 
this time, and prevailed more than at any other 
period before or since ; it was a despicable rem- 
nant of the romantic chivalry for which the nation 
was formerly remarkable. Cheating at play was 
carried to a great extent, and the dandy effeminacy 
of the cavaliers was unexampled. For those whom 
they considered below them they exhibited the 
greatest contempt; and if any one assumed the 
style or courtesies of address which they appropri- 
ated to themselves, he was looked upon as if he 
had committed actual treason. The term Master, 

*Planch& 



224: MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

or Mr., was only used to great merchants or com- 
moners of distinction ; and to address such persons 
as gentlemen or esquires would have roused all the 
ire of the aristocracy. We read that, in proceed- 
ing through the streets of London when dark, 
courtiers only were conducted with torches, mer- 
chants with links, and mechanics with lanterns. 
In James's reign family pride greatly prevailed, 
but from that time to the present it has gradually 
decreased ; then the wealthy distinguished them- 
selves from the poor by a conceited demeanour, 
and an expensive style of living, which consisted 
in pomp and show, and a numerous retinue, rather 
than in real convenience and true pleasure. The 
Earl of Nottingham, in his embassy to Spain, was 
attended by five hundred persons. 

London was infested with a boisterous and vil- 
lanous crew of thieves and cut-purses; pocket- 
picking was then, as now, taught as a science, and 
was carried to a wonderful perfection of dexterity. 
All sorts of rogueries were practised on country 
people. Those vagabonds had their retreats about 
the Savoy, in the Strand, and the brick-kilns of 
Islington. Their great head-quarters were in 
Whitefriars, which possessed the right of sanctu- 
ary, and swarmed with debtors, thieves, bullies, 
and every species of miscreants, who were ready, 
on an alarm made by the sound of a horn, to turn 
out in mobs and defend their associates from con- 
stables and sheriffs' officers. Walking in the 
streets during the daytime was dangerous, from 
the affrays often going on betwixt the apprentices 
and the students of the Temple, or between the 
butchers and weavers, or from the rude jostling 
and practical jokes of bullies. At night there was 
no safety, except under a strong guard. London 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 225 

life at the beginning of this period was far from 
being either safe or agreeable; then the streets and 
alleys were very narrow, unpaved, and in a filthy 
state ; the houses undrained and ill-ventilated, 
the result of which was the plague, a frequent 
visitant. We are told that kites and ravens were 
much kept to devour the offal and filth of the 
streets, instead of scavengers. In the country 
things were not much better ; it was most unsafe 
to go on the roads alone, so many sturdy bands of 
robbers were there. 

After the great fire, the city was improved in 
many respects ; the streets were wider and the 
drainage better, but it was still badly lighted and 
disgraced by filthy kennels and caves of vice. 
Towards the end of Charles II. 's time, London was 
lighted by contract by one Herring, who under- 
took to place a lamp at every tenth door, when 
there was no moon, from six to twelve o'clock at 
night, from Michaelmas to Lady-Day; this was 
thought to be a wonderful advance ! Whitefriars 
still continued the haunt of thieves, bullies, aban- 
doned women, and many other classes, a disgrace 
to themselves and to society. The neighbourhood 
of Whitehall was little better; its inhabitants, 
however, styled themselves gentlemen ! We read 
that these "gentlemen" often sallied into the 
streets in bands, breaking windows, tearing off 
knockers, defacing signs, upsetting stalls, storming 
taverns, beating quiet passengers, and rudely 
insulting respectable women. The watchmen kept 
out of the way ; in extreme cases soldiers were 
called out to disperse the "gentlemen." In addi- 
tion to these dangers of walking the city in the 
dark, was the common practice of emptying all 
sorts of filth out of the chamber windows, as done 



226 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

in Edinburgh till lately, and as still practised in 
the smaller streets of Paris, and other towns on 
the continent. 

Amongst the gloomy features of the early part 
of this period, is the relentless persecution of old 
women, under the belief that they were witches — 
a practice commenced by James L, but continued 
by the Puritans, who sent out Hopkins, the noto- 
rious witch-finder, who in the years 1645 and 1646 
traversed the country, condemning and putting to 
death hundreds of them, till he himself was accused 
of being a wizard, and, as it seems to us, very justly 
shared a similar fate. From 1645 to the restora- 
tion, four thousand persons are said to have 
perished under charge of witchcraft. In this 
respect Scotland was even worse than England ; 
indeed this strange and cruel delusion seems to 
have made a circuit through the civilized world. 

We may imagine the feeling with which the 
sober and religious Puritans beheld all this, and 
the proud contempt with which their strictures 
were received. When the civil war broke out, 
which was a war of religious as much as of political 
reform, the Puritans displayed a grave manner, 
a sober-coloured dress, and chastened style of 
speech; and the cavaliers, in defiance and con- 
tempt, swore, drank, and indulged in debauchery 
all the more, to mark their superiority to the 
* sneaking roundhead dogs." * Charles I. endea- 
voured to restrain this loose, indecent, and dis- 
gusting spirit, but it was too strong for him ; and, 
though the roundheads put it down during the 
Commonwealth, it came back in a flood with the 
lewd, ribald, and useless Charles II— the man "who 
never said a foolish thing, and never did a wise 

* William Howitt. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 227 

one." In the time of the Commonwealth all May- 
poles, wakes, church-ales, and the like, which 
James I. had encouraged by his " Book of Sports/' 
were put down by the Puritans. Till the death 
of the first Charles, the court festivals were marked 
by all the profusion, displays of jewellery, and of 
dresses of cloth of gold and embroidery, which 
prevailed in the grim old Tudor times. The old- 
fashioned country life, in which the gentlemen 
hunted and hawked, and the ladies spent their 
leisure time in giving bread to the poor, and mak- 
ing condiments, preserves, and distilled waters, 
was rapidly changing during the gay days of 
James I. and his son Charles, to the benefit only 
of a few court favourites. Hence it was high time 
for the Puritans to come into power, and to put 
both town and country under a more wholesome 
discipline. Cromwell's soldiers, quartered in dif- 
ferent parts of London, and his major-generals, 
administering martial law in various parts of the 
country, soon altered the face of things. He shut 
up Spring Gardens, a place of nocturnal resort for 
unholy deeds and licentious talk ; and instead of 
fellows prowling about the streets with sweetmeats 
in their pockets, to kidnap children and sell them 
to the plantations, he sent those scoundrels freely 
thither themselves. 

However harsh and repulsive were the manners 
and social maxims of the Puritans, they were 
infinitely preferable to the vile licentiousness and 
blasphemy of the cavaliers, who mistook vulgarity 
and obscenity for gentility. The Puritans had a 
reverence for sound and Christian principles; 
virtue and moral piety were their admiration, 
however rudely they demonstrated it. On the 
other hand, the cavaliers gloried in every opposite 



228 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

vice and vulgarity; their conversation, larded with 
oaths, would have disgraced the most uncouth 
trooper of our day. Macaulay, in speaking of 
these impious dandies, says — " The new band of 
wits and fine gentlemen, never opened their 
mouths without uttering a ribaldry of which a 
porter would now be ashamed, and without calling 
on their Maker to curse them, sink them, confound 
them, blast them, and damn them." And Somers 
bears testimony to the same effect. He says, 
" No man was accounted a gentleman, or person 
of any honour, that had not, in two hours sitting, 
invented some new modish oath, or found out the 
late intrigue between the Lord B. and the Lady 
P., laughed at the fopperies of priests, and made 
lampoons and drollery on the sacred scriptures 
themselves." With respect to drinking and 
gambling, those vices were beyond imagination, 
and the plunder of the people by the cavalier 
troopers was carried on as if they had been in an 
enemy's country. 

But the Puritans carried their ideas of moral 
purity a little too far. They put all the arts 
under fear ; and, says Macaulay, ordered that all 
representations of the Virgin Mother should be 
burned. 

u Sculpture fared as ill as painting. Nymphs and 
graces, the work of Ionian chisels, were delivered 
over to Puritan stone-masons to be made decent. 
Against the lighter vices the ruling faction waged 
war with a zeal little tempered by humanity or by 
common-sense. Sharp laws were passed against 
betting. It was enacted that adultery should be 
punished with death. The illicit intercourse of 
the sexes, even where neither violence nor se- 
duction was imputed, where no public scandal was 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 229 

given, where no conjugal right was violated, was 
made a misdemeanour. Public amusements, from 
the masques which were exhibited at the mansions 
of the great, down to the wrestling matches and 
grinning matches on village greens, were vigorous- 
ly attacked. One ordinance directed that all the 
Maypoles in England should forthwith be hewn 
down. Another proscribed all theatrical diversions. 
The playhouses were to be dismantled, the specta- 
tors fined, the actors whipped at the cart's tail. 
Ropedancing, puppetshows, bowls, horseracing, 
were regarded with no friendly eye. But bear- 
baiting, then a favourite diversion of high and low, 
was the abomination which most strongly stirred 
the wrath of the austere sectaries. It is to be re- 
marked that their antipathy to this sport had 
nothing in common with the feeling which has, in 
our own time, induced the legislature to interfere 
for the purpose of protecting beasts against the 
wanton cruelty of men. The Puritan hated bear- 
baiting, not because it gave pain to the bear, but 
because it gave pleasure to the spectators. In- 
deed, he generally contrived to enjoy the double 
pleasure of tormenting both spectators and bear. 

u Perhaps no single circumstance more strongly 
illustrates the temper of the precisians than their 
conduct respecting Christmas day. Christmas had 
been, from time immemorial, the season of joy and 
domestic affection, the season when families as- 
sembled, when children came home from school, 
when quarrels were made up, when carols were 
heard in every street, when every house was 
decorated with evergreens, and every table was 
loaded with good cheer. At that season all hearts 
not utterly destitute of kindness were enlarged 
and softened. At that season the poor were ad- 



230 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

mitted to partake largely of the overflowings of 
the wealth of the rich, whose bounty was peculiarly 
acceptable on account of the shortness of the clays, 
and of the severity of the weather. At that 
season the interval between landlord and tenant, 
master and servant, was less marked than through 
the rest of the year. Where there is much enjoy- 
ment there will be some excess: yet on the whole, 
the spirit in w r hich the holiday was kept, was not 
unworthy of a Christian festival. The Long 
Parliament gave orders, in 1644, that the twenty- 
fifth of December should be strictly observed as a 
fast, and that all men should pass it in humbly 
bemoaning the great national sin which they and 
their fathers had so often committed on that 
day, by romping under the mistletoe, eating boar's 
head, and drinking ale flavoured with roasted 
apples. No public act at that time seems to have 
irritated the common people more. On the next 
anniversary of the festival formidable riots broke 
out in many places. The constables were resisted, 
the magistrates insulted, the houses of noted 
zealots attacked, and the proscribed service of the 
day openly read in the churches. 

" Such was the spirit of the extreme Puritans, 
both Presbyterian and Independent. Oliver, in- 
deed, was little disposed to be either a persecutor 
or a meddler. But Oliver, the head of a party, and 
consequently, to a great extent, the slave of a 
party, could not govern altogether according to 
his own inclinations. Even under his administra- 
tion, many magistrates, within their own juris- 
diction, made themselves as odious as Sir Hudibras, 
interfered with all the pleasures of the neighbour- 
hood, dispersed festive meetings, and put fiddlers 
in the stocks. Still more formidable was the zeal 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 231 

of the soldiers. In every village where they 
appeared there was an end of dancing, bell-ringing, 
and hockey. In London they several times 
interrupted theatrical performances, at which the 
protector had the judgment and good-nature to 
connive. 

{e With the fear and hatred inspired by such a 
tyranny, contempt was largely mingled. The 
peculiarities of the Puritan, his look, his dress, 
his dialect, his strange scruples, had been, ever 
since the time of Elizabeth, favourite subjects with 
mockers. But these peculiarities appeared far 
more grotesque in a faction which ruled a great 
empire, than in obscure and persecuted congrega- 
tions. The cant which had moved laughter when 
it was heard on the stage from Tribulation 
Wholesome, and Zeal-of-the-Land Busy, was still 
more laughable when it proceeded from the lips of 
generals and councillors of state. It is also to be 
noted that, during the civil troubles, several sects 
had sprung into existence, whose eccentricities 
surpassed any thing that had before been seen in 
England. A mad tailor, named Ludowick Mug- 
gleton, wandered from pothouse to pothouse, 
tippling ale, and denouncing eternal torments 
against those who refused to believe, on his testi- 
mony, that the Supreme Being was only six feet 
high, and that the sun was just four miles from 
the earth." * 

But the example of the Puritans has not been 
without its good, or altogether lost upon succeed- 
ing generations. From the accession of "good 
Queen Anne " to the present day, the morality of 
the English has greatly improved ; and though it 
is now hardly what it ought to be, considering the 

•Macaulay's History of England — Vol. I., pp. 161-4. 



232 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

vast number of men who profess to preach Chris- 
tianity, yet for religion, morality, courage, honesty, 
sobriety, and manliness, old England ranks first in 
the great family of nations. 

From the times of Harry the Eighth to the 
revolution in 1688, the sports common to the great 
mass of the people remained much as before. But 
among the higher classes gambling rose to such 
fever heat that many great estates were squan- 
dered at cards. The Duke of St. Albans, when 
more than eighty years of age, and quite blind, 
used to sit at the gambling table from day to day, 
with a man beside him to tell him the cards. 
Billiards, chess, backgammon, and cribbage, were 
much played ; bowls, ninepins, boat-racing, run- 
ning at the ring, were sports which all classes of 
people enjoyed. Ladies joined in playing at 
bowls — skating was introduced by some courtiers 
who had spent much time in Holland — and swim- 
ming and foot races were fashionable. Hunting 
was the favourite pastime of James I,, and there- 
fore was not likely to be neglected by the country 
gentry. He was also fond of hawking, and kept 
that diversion alive for a time, though from its 
very nature it was destined soon to go out of 
fashion. Ball games had much superseded the 
jousts and tournaments of past times. Tennis 
was in high favour, and pall-mall, or striking a 
ball through a ring suspended to a pole, was 
becoming " fashionable." Bowling, cards, dice, 
dancing, masques, balls, and musical entertain- 
ments, varied town life. Working-people stuck to 
their foot-ball, quoits, pitching the bar, cricket, 
shovel-board, bull and bear baiting, and cock-fight- 
ing. The Puritans put down May-games, Whit- 
sun-ales, morris-dances, and all amusements that 




Shooting. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 233 

savoured of a Catholic origin. They also, as we 
have seen, suppressed, as far as they could, the 
savage sports of bear and bull baiting. Hewson 
and Pride killed all the bears at the bear-garden 
to put an end to that cruel pastime, and thence 
originated Butler's Hudibras. The bowling-greens 
of the English were famous, and horse-racing was 
much in vogue. In Scotland the Reformation put 
to flight all sorts of games, dancing, and merry- 
makings, as sinful and unbecoming of Christians, 
and polemic discussions were the only excitements 
which varied the ascetic gloom.* 

Since 1688, the diversions and manners of the 
English have undergone a considerable change. 
Their ancient hospitality is no more, and many 
favourite diversions are now forgotten. Those 
remaining to us are operas, dramatic exhibitions, 
and masquerades — hunting, racing, and dancing — 
foot-ball, cricket, and some others. Concerts of 
music, card-playing, angling, fowling, coursing, 
tennis, billiards, chess, draughts, skittles, quoits, 
&c, &c, are familiar to the English. " Ringing 
of bells is a species of music which the English 
boast of having carried to perfection." f The 
athletic diversion of cricket is still kept up, and 
practised by people of all classes. Rowing is an 
amusement peculiar to the Britons. The present 
game laws have deprived many people of a diver- 
sion, without answering the purposes of the 
wealthy, by whom and for whom they were 
passed. 

u One of the peculiar diversions practised by 
the gentlemen of Scotland is the goff, which 
requires an equal degree of art and strength. It 

* Pict. Hist, of Eng.— Vol. III., p. 404. 

f Adams— New Hist, of Great Britain, p. 321. 



234 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

is played with a bat and a ball ; the latter is 
smaller and harder than a cricket ball ; the bat is 
of a taper construction, till it terminates in the 
part that strikes the ball, which is loaded with 
lead, and faced with horn. An expert player will 
send the ball a very long distance at one stroke ; 
each party follows his ball upon an open heath, 
and he who strikes it with fewest strokes into a 
hole, wins the game. The diversion of hurling is, 
perhaps, peculiar to the Scots. It is performed 
upon ice with large flat stones, often from twenty 
to two hundred pounds weight each, which they 
hurl from a common stand to a mark at a certain 
distance ; and whoever is nearest to the mark is 
the victor."* 

The history of the stage is a subject of great 
philosophical curiosity, as it is in every nation 
closely connected with the history of manners. 
Even from the modes of playing in different ages 
there is something to be learned. 

The English stage has long held a high place 
among the amusements of the people. The man 
to whom it is most indebted is the immortal 
William Shakespeare, who was born at Stratford- 
on-Avon, in the year 1564. The genius of 
Shakespeare appears to penetrate into all depart- 
ments of knowledge, and his instincts to possess 
an universal accuracy. Whether he describes the 
beauties of nature at large, or enters the haunts of 
busy life, high or low, royal, noble, or plebeian, or 
sends his all-searching glance into the depths of 
the human mind, or the strange intricacies of 
human nature, we are equally astonished at the 
clearness of his perceptive faculties, and the just- 
ness of his conclusions. His genius is what the 

* Adams — New Hist, of Great Britain. 



THE ENGLISH NATION, 235 

Germans term spherical, or many-sided. He had 
not a brilliancy in one direction only, but he 
seemed like a grand mirror, in which is truly re- 
flected every image that falls on it. Outward 
nature, inner life and passion, town and country, 
all the features of human nature as exhibited in 
every grade of life — from the cottage to the throne 
— are in him expressed with a truth and a natural 
strength, that awake in us precisely the same 
sensations as nature itself. The receptivity of his 
mind was as quick, as vast, as perfect, as his 
power of expression was unlimited. Every object 
once seen appeared photographed on his spirit, 
and he reproduced these life-like images in new 
combinations, and mingled with such an exuberance 
of wit, of humour, of delicious melodies, and of 
exquisite poetry, as hath no parallel in the whole 
range of literature, including all ages and all coun- 
tries. The u learned " have always been astonish- 
ed that he could be all this without an academic 
education, as if the academy of God's universe 
did not include all lesser colleges, and as if God 
needed lectures and masters to instruct those 
whom he chooses to inform himself, and to produce 
as his elect and peculiar oracles.* 

Taking the dramatic writing of the early part of 
this period altogether, it has never been surpassed, 
and in Shakespeare it has never been equalled. 

Our tragic actors, before Garrick's appearance, 
had but an imperfect knowledge of their business ; 
there was little that was real about them. But as 
soon as Garrick set his foot on the stage, this 
difficulty in a great measure vanished. His sound 
judgment, good taste, keen sensibility, insight into 
human nature, united to most expressive features— 

* William Howitt. 



236 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

a bright eye, quick ear, and exquisite voice, soon 
placed him at the head of his profession. Other 
actors imitated his easy and natural manners, and 
thereby the theatre became greatly improved. 
This new style of acting produced a better taste 
in writing, which, though less ribald and licentious, 
yet was not more faithful to nature. 

Amongst the ancients, music formed an essential 
>9 P ar ^ °f tne dramatic entertainments. Amongst 
^ the moderns, especially the English, it was for a 
* longtime only an occasional auxiliary. The first 
successful piece of music on the English stage was 
the " Beggar's Opera,']' the author of which was 
Gay, the poet and fabulist. It is said to have 
been written in ridicule of the Italian opera. Gay 
adapted the words of his songs to native tunes in- 
stead of Italian ones. These tunes had been heard 
by most of the audience in early life, when the 
mind was free from care — in the scenes of rural 
innocence, or the walks of gay frolic. Every tune 
recalled some agreeable feeling, or previous happy 
state of mind ; so that the effect of the music was 
quite magical. Handel brought on the English 
stage a new sort of musical drama, to which he 
gave the name of Oratorio. 

The theatre of our day is very much superior to 
the stage at the beginning of this period. Mana- 
gers and players have much more taste than was 
possessed by those of former days ; actors and 
actresses are not so grossly immoral as they used 
to be, and the plays themselves contain little, and 
in most cases nothing, at all objectionable. The 
theatre, properly used, is capable of working a 
great good, as well as of affording much amuse- 
ment. 

" The costume of the reign of James I. was 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 237 

little more than a continuation of the dress of the 
latter part of Elizabeth's. The increase in size, 
from the quantity of stuffing used in the garments, 
we may partly trace to the pusillanimous character 
of the new monarch."* A contemporary of James 
I. informs us that that monarch had " his clothing 
made large, and even the doublets quilted, for 
fear of — stellets ; his breeches in great plaits and 
full stuffed. He was naturally of a timorous dis- 
position, which was the greatest reason of his 
quilted doublets." | 

The ruff was occasionally exchanged for a wide 
stiff collar, standing out horizontally and squarely, 
made of the same stuff, and starched and wired as 
usual, but plain instead of plaited or pinched, and 
sometimes edged, like the ruff, with lace. These 
collars were called bands. Towards the close of 
James's reign, however, we perceive a slight 
alteration in costume. Short jackets or doublets, 
with tails and false sleeves hanging behind, 
succeed to the long-waisted doublets; and the 
hose, instead of being slashed or laced, were 
covered with loose broad straps, richly embroidered 
or adorned with buttons, and discovering the silk 
or velvet trunk at the narrow intervals between 
them. The stockings were gartered beneath the 
knee, and the garters fastened in a large bow or 
rosette on one side. The loose Gallic hosen were 
still worn, and fastened to the doublet or jacket 
just above the tabs by innumerable points.J 

John Taylor, the water-poet, reprobates the 
spendthrift and the gallant, who 

* Planche*— Hist, of Brit. Costume, pp. 349-50. 
f Dalzel — " Fragments of Scottish History." 
I Planche 



238 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

11 Wear a farm in shoe-strings edged with gold, 
And spangled garters worth a copyhold ; 
A hose and doublet which a lordship cost; 
A gaudy cloak three mansions' price almost ; 
A beaver band and feather on the head, 
Prized at the church's tythe, the poor man's bread." 

Silk, worsted, and thread stockings were now 
almost universally worn, and cloth or woollen 
stockings were considered unfashionable. 
/f The ladies in the reign of James I. still wore 
V the stiff Elizabethan farthingale, elevated collar, 
and hair dressed in the lofty style. In this respect, 
the queen of James was Elizabeth over again. 
In the old play called " Lingua; or, the Combat of 
the Tongue and the Five Senses for superiority," 
published in 1607, we have a curious list of the 
articles of a lady's wardrobe. One of the charac- 
ters says — " Five hours ago, I sent a dozen maids 
to attire a boy like a nice gentlewoman, but there 
is such doing with their looking-glasses ; pinning, 
unpinning ; setting, unsetting ; formings and con- 
formings ; painting of blue veins and cheeks. 
Such a stir with sticks, combs, cascanets, dress- 
ings, purls, fall squares, busks, bodices, scarfs, 
necklaces, carcanets, rabatoes, borders, tires, fans, 
palisadoes, puffs, ruffs, cuffs, muffs, pusles, fusles, 
partlets, friglets, bandlets, fillets, corslets, pendu- 
lets, amulets, annulets, bracelets, and so many lets 
— i. e., stops or hindrances — that she is scarce 
dressed to the girdle ; and now there is such call- 
ing for fardingales, kirtles, busk-points, shoe-ties, 
and the like, that seven pedlars' shops, nay, all 
Stourbridge fair, will scarcely furnish her. A 
ship is sooner rigged by far than a gentlewoman 
made ready ! " 

The reign of Charles I. introduces us to the 
most elegant and picturesque costume ever worn 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 239 

in England. It is sometimes termed the Vandyke 
dress, from the circumstance of its being the 
costume of the time in which Vandyke painted. 
This costume is the best adapted for the stage, 
and is therefore generally selected for such plays 
as are not fixed by their subject to some other 
particular time. In Ben JonsoiVs comedy of 
the "New Inn," first acted in 1629, a beau ob- 
serves — 

" I would put on 
The Savoy chain about my neck, the ruff, 
The cuffs of Flanders; then the Naples hat 
With the Rome hat-band, and the Florentine agate, 
The Milan sword, the cloak of Geneva set 
With Brabant buttons ; all my given pieces, 
My gloves, the natives of Madrid," &c. 

The same writer, in his "Tale of a Tub," 
mentions " long sawsedge hose, and breeches 
pinned up like pudding-bags ; " and long breeches, 
in imitation of the Dutch fashion, are said to 
have been worn by Charles I. and others. At 
the commencement of the civil war, when the 
royalist party began to be denominated Cavaliers, 
and the republican Roundheads, the costume of 
England was as divided as its opinions ; but the 
dress of the cavalier was gallant and picturesque 
in the extreme. It consisted of a doublet of silk, 
satin, or velvet, with large loose sleeves, slashed 
up the front — the collar covered by a falling 
band of the richest point lace, with that peculiar 
edging now called Vandyke. A short cloak was 
worn carelessly on one shoulder. The long 
breeches, fringed or pointed, met the tops of the 
wide boots, which were also ruffled with lace or 
lawn. A broad-leafed Flemish beaver hat, with a 
rich hat-band and plume of feathers, was set on one 
side of the head, and a Spanish rapier hung from 



240 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

a most magnificent baldrick or sword-belt, worn 
sash -wise over the right shoulder. The doublet of 
silk or velvet was frequently exchanged in those 
troublesome times for a buff coat, which was richly- 
laced. Sometimes it was embroidered with gold 
or silver, and encircled by a broad silk or satin 
scarf tied in a large bow, either behind or over the 
hip. The beard was worn very peaked, with 
small upturned mustaches ; the hair long, and 
probably sometimes powdered. John Owen, Vice- 
Chancellor of Oxford, appears, in the year 1652, 
" in querpo like a young scholar, with powdered 
hair, snake-bone bandstrings, a lawn band, a large 
set of ribands pointed at the knees, Spanish 
leather boots with large lawn tops, and his hat 
most curiously cocked," — a dress suitable for a 
dandy, but, as Strutt observes, " improper enough 
for a clergyman." In a portrait of Charles I. by 
Vandyke, the king wears a jewel in one ear only. 
The dress of that great man, Oliver Cromwell, is 
thus described by Sir Philip Warwick — "The 
first time that I ever took notice of him was in the 
beginning of Parliament held in November 1640, 
when I vainly thought myself a courtly young 
gentleman, for we courtiers valued ourselves much 
upon our good clothes. I came one morning into 
the house well clad, and perceived a gentleman 
speaking whom I knew not, very ordinarily 
apparelled ; for it was a plain cloth suit, which 
seemed to have been made by an ill country 
tailor ; his linen was plain, and not very clean ; 
and I remember a speck or two of blood upon his 
little band, which was not much larger than his 
collar ; his hat was without a hat-band ; his 
stature was of a good size ; his sword stuck close 
to his side." 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 241 

The female costume at the commencement of 
Charles I.'s reign underwent no great change. 
The following is " a catalogue " of the apparel and 
ornaments of a fantastical lady of fashion, from a 
play said to have been first acted in 1631. The 
speaker acknowledges it to be u as tedious as a 
tailor's bill ; " but, being interesting, we give it. 
He is commanded to provide — 

" Chains, coronets, pendans, bracelets, and ear-rings ; 
Pins, girdles, spangles, embroyderies, and rings ; 
Shadowes, rebatoes, ribbands, ruffs, cuffs, falls, 
Scarfes, feathers, fans, maskes, muffs, laces, cauls, 
Thin tiffanies, cobweb lawn, and fardingals, 
Sweet fals, vayles, wimples, glasses, Crispin g-pins, 
Pots of ointment, combes, with poking-sticks, and bodkines, 
Coyfes, gorgets, fringes, rowles, fillets, and hair-laces, 
Silks, damasks, velvets, tinsels, cloth of gold, 
Of tissues with colours of a hundred fold ; 
But in her tyres, so new-fangled is she, 
That which doth with her humour now agree, 
To-morrow she dislikes ; now doth she sweare, 
That a loose body is the neatest weare ; 
But ere an houre be gone she will protest, 
A strait gowne graces her proportion best ; 
Now calls she for a boisterous fardingal, 
Then to her hips she'll have her garments fall; 
Now doth she praise a sleeve that's long and wide, 
Yet by and by that fashion doth deride ; 
Sometimes she applauds a pavement-sweeping traine, 
And presently dispraiseth it againe ; 
Now she commends a shallow bande so small, 
That it may seem scarce any bande at all ; 
But soon to a new fancy doth she reele, 
And calls for one as big as a coach- wheele : 
She'll wear a flowing coronet to-day, 
The symball of her beauty's sad decay ; 
To-morrow she a waving plume will try, 
The emblem of all female levitie : 
Now in her hat, then in her hair is drest ; 
Now, of all fashions, she thinks change the best : 
Nor in her weeds alone is she so nice, 
But rich perfumes she buys at any price ; 
Storax and spikenard she burns in her chamber, 
And daubs herself with civit, musk, and amber; 
Waters she hath to make her face to shine, 
Confections eke to clarify her skin : 



242 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Lip-salves, and clothes of a rich scarlet dye 
She hath which to her cheeks she doth apply ; 
Ointment, wherewith she pargets o'er her face, 
And lustrifies her beauty's dying grace," &c, &c. 

Soon afterwards, however, the ladies' dresses of 
Charles's time rapidly changed from the stiff ruffs* 
and fardingales, &c , to a more natural and elegant 
style. With Mrs. Turner, the introducer, went 
out the yellow starch ruffs and bands in James I.'s 
reign. " It is well that the fashion died at the 
gallows w T ith her that was the supposed inventrix 
of it." * So great was the change in the costume 
of the ladies, that a lady of that day would scarcely 
be distinguished from a lady of this ; the dress 
fell naturally without hoops, and the broad collar 
fell gracefully on the shoulders. The citizens' and 
puritans' wives, as well as country women, wore 
the broad high-crowned hat. Country women 
still appeared in plaited ruffs, also with a muffler 
over the mouth in cold weather tied up to the 
back of the head. It was then customary for the 
ladies to carry their feather fans in their hands, as 
those of our day carry their parasols. 

Planche says — "With the restoration of the 
house of Stuart, fashion also regained the throne, 
from which she had been driven by the stern and 
puritanical republicans, and, like the l merry 
monarch' with w T hom she returned, many were 
the mad pranks she played in the delirium of her 
joy; many the excesses she committed. Taste 
and elegance were abandoned for extravagance 
and folly ; and the male costume, which in the 
time of Charles I. had reached the highest point 
of picturesque splendour, degenerated and declined 
from this moment, and expired in the square coat, 

* Eulwer— Pedigree of the English Gallant 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 243 

cocked hat, full-bottomed wig, and jack-boots of 
the following century.* 

Periwigs, or, as Holme hath it, perawickes y 
date their origin from the reign of Charles II. It 
appears that, when the king was a little boy, he 
had remarkably beautiful hair, which hung in long 
waving curls upon his shoulders, and the courtiers, 
out of compliment to their young sovereign, had 
heads of false hair made to imitate his natural 
locks, which obtained the name of perukes. 
When the king reached manhood, he returned the 
compliment by adopting the article himself, and the 
perruque or peruke speedily lodged upon the heads 
and shoulders of all the -gentlemen of Britain, 
under the corrupted appellation of a periwig. 
Charles II. wrote a letter to the University of 
Cambridge, forbidding the members to wear peri- 
wigs, smoke tobacco, and read their sermons ! -f* 

It must be remembered, however, that false hair 
was worn by both sexes, and in great profusion, 
during the reigns of Elizabeth and her successor. 
So extraordinary a thing as the periwig, of course, 
demanded a different covering to the high-crowned 
hat or broad-leafed Spanish sombrero. Down went 
the crown and up went the brims at the sides, a 
row of feathers was placed round it in lieu of the 
chivalric plume, and the first approach was made 
to the cocked hats of the eighteenth century. 

The following is a description of a gentleman's 
dress by Randal Holmes, written in 1659: — "A 
short-waisted doublet and petticoat-breeches, the 
lining being lower than the breeches, is tied above 
the knees ; the breeches are ornamented with rib- 

* Hist, of Brit. Costume, p. 375-6. 

t Vide Strutt's Dress and Habits, Vol. II. ; and Hone's Everyday 
Book, Vol. I. 



244 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

ands up to the pocket, and half their breadth upon 
the thigh ; the waistband is set about with ribands, 
and the shirt hanging out over them." In an in- 
ventory of apparel provided for Charles II., in 
1679, we find a complete suit of one material 
under the familiar designation of coat, waistcoat, 
and breeches. Pantaloons are mentioned in the 
same inventory, and a yard and a half of lutestring 
allowed for them. Holland drawers, and flannel 
and cotton trousers, are also amongst the items. 
In 1666 the king declared in counsel his intention 
of adopting a certain dress, which he was resolved 
never to alter ! It consisted of a long close vest of 
black cloth or velvet, pinked with white satin ; a 
loose coat over it of the Polish fashion, and, instead 
of shoes and stockings, buskins or brodequins. 
Cravats or neckcloths of Brussels and Flanders 
lace were worn towards the end of Charles II. 's 
reign : they were tied in a knot under the chin, 
the ends hanging down square. 

The " beauties " in the reign of the second 
Charles were the very reverse of their mothers, 
both in dress and demeanour. A studied negli- 
gence, and elegant dishabille, is the prevailing 
character of the costume in which most of them 
are represented — " Their glossy ringlets, escaping 
from a simple bandeau of pearls, or adorned by a 
single rose, fall in graceful profusion upon snowy 
necks, unveiled by even the transparent lawn of 
the band or the partlet ; and the fair round arm, 
bare to the elbow, reclines upon the voluptuous 
satin petticoat; while the gown, of the same rich 
material, piles up its voluminous train in the back- 
ground." * 

In the two brief reigns of James II. and 

* Planche— Hist, of Brit. Costume, p. 386. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 245 

William III., there was very little alteration in the 
civil costume. " The petticoat-breeches were 
again exchanged for those which tied beneath the 
knee ; but the latter were made to sit closer than 
of yore, and the stockings drawn over them to the 
middle of the thigh. The periwig became more 
monstrous, and it was the fashion for the beaux to 
comb their perukes publicly, for which purpose 
large combs of ivory or tortoise-shell, curiously 
chased and ornamented, were carried in the pocket 
as constantly as the snuff-box, which had latterly 
also become an indispensable appendage to a fine 
gentleman. At court, in the mall, and in the 
boxes of the theatre, a gallant of these days 
combed hi3 peruke, during a conversation or flir- 
tation, with the same air that a modern exquisite 
would twirl his mustaches. The full-bottomed 
wig was worn by the learned professions, and those 
who affected particular gravity." * 

The broad-falling bands were succeeded by the 
small Geneva bands, like those worn by our 
modern clergymen and councillors, " except that, 
instead of being two small pieces worn for distinc- 
tion merely, they were bond fide collars, the ends 
of which hung negligently out over the waistcoat." 
Neckcloths were worn by " exquisites " exceedingly 
long, and the ends passed through the waistcoat 
button-holes. Shoe-buckles began to displace the 
rosettes — buckles for shoes are mentioned as early 
as the time of Edward IV. 

The costume of the fair sex remained unaltered 
during the reign of James II., but some Dutch 
fashions appear to have followed the court of 
William and Mary. The bosom was again con- 
signed to the guardianship of the ugly stomacher. 

*Planche. 



246 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

The hair was now combed up from the forehead 
like a rising billow, and surmounted by piles of 
ribands and lace, disposed in regular and alternate 
tiers, &c. This head-gear was sometimes called a 
tower ! 

" The reign of Queen Anne vanished every 
relic of our chivalrie costume except the sword, 
which still, in our own day, completes the full 
dress of the court of St, James's." 

" Square-cut coats and long-flapped waistcoats 
with pockets in them, the latter meeting the 
stockings, still drawn up over the knee so high as 
to entirely conceal the breeches, but gartered 
below it; large hanging cuffs and lace ruffles ; the 
skirts of the coats stiffened out with wire or 
buckram, from between which peeped the hilt of 
the sword, deprived of the broad and splendid belt 
in which it swung in the preceding reigns ; blue 
or scarlet silk stockings with gold or silver clocks; 
lace neckcloths; square-toed short-quartered shoes, 
with high red heels and small buckles ; very long 
and formally-curled perukes, black riding-wigs, 
bag- wigs, and nightcap-wigs; small three-cornered 
hats laced with gold or silver galloon, and some- 
times trimmed with feathers, composed the habit 
of the noblemen and gentlemen during the reigns 
of Queen Anne and George I." * 

In the reigns of the first, second, and third 
Georges, hats appear to have undergone the most 
changes. The old three-cornered cocked hat u has 
found a temporary refuge on the heads of the state- 
coachmen of our royal and noble families/' The 
wig, too, was doomed to feel the influence of the 
French revolution. During the latter half of the 
18 th century, it gradually diminished in size : the 

* Planche. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 247 

practice of frizzing, plastering, and powdering the 
hair, till it was at least as ugly as a wig, has even 
in our own time a few faithful followers. Hair- 
powder maintained its ground till 1793, when it 
was discarded by Queen Charlotte and the prin- 
cesses, and soon afterwards disappeared from the 
toilet of every lady. 

The square-cut coat and long-flapped waistcoat 
of the reign of Queen Anne and the first two 
Georges, underwent an alteration about the middle 
of the reign of their successor. The skirts were 
unstiffened, the waists shortened, and the cut of 
the present court suit introduced. Cloth became 
the general material for the coat, and velvet, silk, 
satin, and embroidery were reserved for court 
dresses, or waistcoats and breeches only. The 
latter were, from the close of George the Second's 
reign, worn over the stocking as at present, and 
fastened first by buckles and afterwards by strings. 
The shoes were worn with' longer quarters and 
larger buckles. About the year 1777, the buttons 
of the coat, and the buckles on the shoes, were 
worn of an enormous size. A beau with steel 
buttons dazzling a lady, was the subject of a 
caricature in that year. The lace cravat was 
abandoned about 1735, and a black riband worn 
round the neck, tied in a large bow in front. To 
this succeeded white cambric stocks, buckled be- 
hind; and to them, about 1789, the modern 
muslin cravat, in which it was, at one time, the 
fashion to bury the chin. About the same period 
the shirt-collar appeared, and the ruffle vanished. 
The coat was made with lapels and a tail, being 
cut square in front above the hips, as well as the 
waistcoat, which, deprived of its flaps, was soon 
made as ridiculously short as it had previously 



248 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

been unnecessarily long. Pantaloons and Hessian 
boots were introduced about the end of the cen- 
tury; but from this time the fashions are in the 
recollection of some of our readers. Short boots 
and loose trousers, the result of the visit of the 
Cossacks to London, have, together with frock- 
coats, rendered our costume more convenient and 
less formal ; and could we exchange the heavy and 
tasteless beaver hat for some light and more 
elegant head-covering, the dress of the present 
day, if not so picturesque as that of Charles I.'s 
time, would at least have comfort and durability 
to recommend it ; and an Englishman, instead of 
being caricatured, as of yore, with a pair of shears 
in his hand, as uncertain what fashion to adopt, 
might remain contented, and described as — 

" An honest man close button'd to the chin, 
Broad-cloth without, and a warm heart within." * 

In the time of Charles I. long beards were 
reduced to a small pointed lock of hair — in the 
reign of James II. mustaches only remained — and 
both have been discontinued since the time of the 
third William, and only very lately revived. Dr. 
Elliotson, in speaking of shaving the beard, says, 
(in his Human Physiology, 5th edit.) — u It cannot 
but be a custom most insulting to nature to shave 
off the beard, which, if kept in proper trim, as 
birds and beasts instinctively keep their plumage 
and hair in good order, completes the perfection 
of man's face, and the external distinction of the 
sexes; and, whatever ladies pretend to the con- 
trary, renders him far more attractive to women — 
at any rate when custom has had time to lessen 
their seeming repugnance ; for their preference to 
men with good whiskers is certain. Shaving was 

* Planche. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 249 

forbidden by Moses, and therefore; according to 
Jews and Christians, by God ; it was a severe 
punishment among the Indians, and an irreparable 
insult among the Germans. The Osmanli swears 
by his beard, and spends half his day upon it. 
Shaving prevails in Europe because the kings of 
France set the example to their courtiers, who 
were followed by the nation, which formerly gave 
the ton to neighbouring nations, and therefore 
was at length followed by all in this troublesome 
and unmanly fashion." 

Mrs. Darner, the eccentric and celebrated sculp- 
tor, is said to have been the first female who wore 
black silk stockings in England. 

Of course we do not pretend to have gone fully 
into the subject of British costume ; the size of 
this volume will not permit it. We may here 
remark, that fashion has been such a varying 
goddess, that neither history, tradition, nor 
painting, has been able to preserve all her mimic 
forms. In and about the year 1735, a lady's dress 
was short, and very much like a great drum ; and 
in 1745 it was even wider. Indeed, the fashions 
of women's dresses are like a weathercock, always 
changing and never fixed. Ridiculous as women 
make themselves in our day through the use of 
crinoline, neck-hole bonnets, &c. &c, we find in 
history, that since the Norman Conquest the much 
worshipped goddess Fashion has ever been most 
changeable. 

Should the reader wish to know something more 
of the national costume of Scotland and Ireland, 
we gladly recommend Froissart's " Chronicles," 
Buchanan's "History of Scotland," Camden's 
" History of Elizabeth," and Planche's excellent 
work on British costume— a work from which we 



250 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

have given many extracts, and to the writer of 
which we have been greatly indebted. 

At th*| commencement of this period — indeed 
until recently — there were few coaches except in 
and about large towns, and in winter the roads 
were generally impassable. On all but the main 
highways, pack-horses carried the necessary mer- 
chandize from place to place through deep narrow 
tracks, some of which remain to this day. It 
required four or five days to reach London by 
coach from Chester, York, or Bristol, and that 
attended by perils and discomforts which made 
travellers loth to encounter such a journey, and 
often to make their wills before starting. Mac- 
aulay has summed up the terrors, &c, of the road, 
as given by our diarists, in a passage which we 
quote : — u On the best lines of communication 
the ruts were deep, the descents precipitous, and 
the ways often such that it was hardly possible to 
distinguish them in the dusk £rom the unenclosed 
heath and fens on both sides/ Ralph Thoresby, 
the antiquary, was in danger of losing his way on 
the great north road between Barnby Moor and 
Tuxford, and actually lost his way between Don- 
caster and York ; Pepys and his wife, travelling 
in their own coach, lost their way between New- 
berry and Reading. In the course of the same 
tour they lost their way near Salisbury, and 
were in danger of having to pass the night on the 
plain. It was only in fine weather that the whole 
breadth of the road was available for wheeled 
vehicles. Often the mud lay deep on the right 
and the left, and only a narrow track of firm 
ground rose above the quagmire. At such times 
obstructions and quarrels were frequent, and the 
pass was frequently blocked up during a long 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 251 

time by carriers, neither of whom would give way. 
It happened almost every day that coaches stuck 
fast, until a team of cattle could be procured from 
some neighbouring farm, to tug them out of the 
slough. But in bad seasons the travellers had to 
encounter inconveniences still more serious. 
Thoresby, who was in the habit of travelling 
between Leeds and the capital, has recorded in 
his diary such a series of perils and disasters as 
might suffice for a journey to the Frozen Ocean, 
or to the desert of Sahara. On one occasion he 
learned that the floods were out between Ware 
and London, that passengers had to swim for their 
lives, and that a higgler had perished in the 
attempt to cross. In consequence of these tidings 
he turned out of the highroad, and was conducted 
across some meadows, when it was necessary for 
him to ride to the skirts in water. In the course 
of another journey, he narrowly escaped being 
swept away by an inundation of the Trent. He 
was afterwards detained at Stamford four days, on 
account of the state of the roads, and then ven- 
tured to proceed only because fourteen members 
of the House of Commons, who were going up in 
a body to parliament, with guides and numerous 
attendants, took him into their company. On the 
roads of Derbyshire, travellers were in constant 
fear for their necks, and were frequently compelled 
to alight and lead their beasts. The great route 
through Wales to Holyhead was in such a state 
that, in 1685, a viceroy going to Ireland was five 
hours travelling fourteen miles, from St. Asaph 
to Conway. Between Conway and Beaumaris he 
was forced to walk a great part of the way, and 
his lady was carried in a litter. His coach was, 
with much difficulty, and, by the help of many 



252 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

hands, brought after him entire. In general, car- 
riages were taken to pieces at Conway, and borne 
on the shoulders of stout Welsh peasants to the 
Menai straits. In some parts of Kent and Sussex 
none but the strongest horses could, in winter, 
get through the bog, in which at every step they 
sunk deep. The markets were often inaccessible 
during several months. It is said the fruits 
of the earth w^ere sometimes suffered to rot in one 
place ; while in another place, distant only a few 
miles, the supply fell short of the demand. The 
wheeled carriages in this district were generally 
pulled by oxen. When Prince George of Den- 
mark visited the stately mansion of Petworth, in 
wet weather, he was six hours going nine miles ; 
and it was necessary that a body of sturdy hinds 
should be on each side of his coach, in order to 
prop it. Of the carriages which conveyed his 
retinue, several were upset and injured. A letter 
from one of the party has been preserved, in 
which the unfortunate courtier complains that, 
during fourteen hours, he never once alighted, 
except when his coach was overturned or stuck 
fast in the mud." 

People in those times travelled very much on 
horseback, to avoid the nuisance of carriages on 
such wretched roads ; but then, it was necessary 
to go well armed, and if possible in company, for 
the country was infested by highwaymen. To 
abate the difficulties of the road, the turnpike sys- 
tem was adopted in the time of Charles IL, and 
what were called flying coaches were put on the 
amended ways, which were certainly an improve- 
ment. 

At the beginning of the period under considera- 
tion, the interior of houses was greatly embellished, 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 233 

and the splendour of bed and window hangings 
had strikingly increased. Rich velvets and silks, 
embroidered with cloth of gold and cloth of silver, 
and coloured satins abounded, of the most gorgeous 
hues. The cushions of couches and chairs were 
equally costly ; and, instead of the ancient tapestry, 
paper and leather hangings, richly stamped and 
gilt, covered the walls. The Flemish artists had 
been called in to decorate the ceilings with historic 
or mythologic scenes, and on the walls hung les 
chef d'ceuvres of Flemish and Italian art. Carpets 
were beginning to supersede rushes on the floors, 
but were more commonly used as coverings for 
tables. In addition to the carved cabinets of 
oak, ebony, and ivory, and the richly cushioned 
high-backed chairs of the Tudor dynasty, Flemish 
and Dutch furniture of somewhat formal but still 
elegant design abounded. Superb ornaments of 
ivory and china had found their way from the 
East, and became heirlooms in large mansions. 
Altogether, the houses of the wealthy of those 
times presented a scene of stately elegance and 
luxury that has not since been surpassed.* 

Smoking and snuff-takinp; became common in 
the reign of James I. The fashion of smoking 
was so strong, that James I. could get no one to 
preach against it ; he therefore took up the pen 
and wrote a treatise, which he denominates " A 
Counterblast to Tobacco." We give one extract 
from the w T ork, which shows what the author 
thought of smoking. " It is a custom loathsome 
to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the 
brain, dangerous to the lungs, and in the black 
stinking fume thereof, nearest resembling the 
horrible Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottom- 

* Pic Hist, of Eng.— Vol. III., p. 405. 



254 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

less." Smoking and drunkenness greatly pre- 
vailed in the reign of George II. ; gentlemen 
rarely met at dinner without " wetting their clay," 
not a little too much. In No. 344 of the Spectator, 
the practice of taking snuff is mentioned as one 
that " fine ladies " had lately fallen into. 

Though the country life was much more 
generally embraced by the wealthy at the com- 
mencement of this period than it is at the present 
day; yet the increase of arts, social commerce, and 
pleasure, was just beginning to produce an in- 
clination for the more civilized city life. The 
first James did what he could to discourage this 
alteration. lie often said to them — " Gentlemen, 
at London you are like ships in a sea, which 
shew like nothing; but in your country villages 
you arc like ships in a river, which look like great 
things. " Any one acquainted with the history of 
the shrewd but conceited and vain James, sees at 
once his motive for giving such unasked for 
advice. He well knew that, if the wealthy class 
lived in London, they would get more sensible of 
their own strength, and might indulge too curious 
researches into matters connected with the govern- 
ment ; but, if they were dispersed to their respec- 
tive country-houses, they would bear a more 
submissive reverence to his authority, and receive 
less support from each other. 

Carriages, hackney-coaches, and sedan-chairs 
became common at the beginning of this period. 
The first sedan-chair in England was used by the 
foppish Buckingham, to the great indignation of 
the people, w r ho said that he was employing his 
fellow-creatures to do the work of beasts. In the 
reign of George II., ladies and gentlemen attended 
parties in sedan-chairs. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 255 

Copper halfpence and farthings were first coined 
in the reign of James I. The silver pennies 
having disappeared, tradesmen were obliged to 
carry on their retail business chiefly by means 
of brass and leaden tokens, which in 1613 were 
prohibited. The second James coined gold pieces 
of the value of £5. George III. was the first who 
issued penny and twopenny pieces. Cromwell's 
coins exceed any of that period in beauty and 
workmanship. In the reign of James I., the 
interest of money was fixed at ten per cent. ; in 
1624, the last year of his reign, it was reduced to 
eight per cent. ; and in 1651 it was fixed by 
parliament at six per cent., at which it remained 
till the time of Queen Anne, when it was fixed at 
five per cent. 

At the commencement of this period gardening 
was more generally attended to than formerly; 
and both culinary vegetables and flowers were in- 
troduced. Samuel Hartlib, a Pole, who was 
patronised by the immortal Cromwell, wrote 
various treatises on agriculture, and relates that in 
his time old men recollected the first gardener who 
went into Surrey to plant cabbages, cauliflowers, 
and artichokes, and to sow early peas, turnips, 
carrots, and parsnips. Till then, almost all the 
supply of these things in London was imported 
from Holland and Flanders. About the year 
1650, cherries, apples, pears, hops, cabbages, and 
liquorice were much cultivated, and soon super- 
seded the necessity of importation ; but Hartlib 
informs us that onions were still scarce, and that 
the supply of stocks of apple, pear, cherry, chestnut, 
and vine trees was very small, through the want of 
sufficient nurseries for them. There was a great 
desire to cultivate tobacco, and to introduce the 



256 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

production of raw silk, but the endeavour proved 
abortive. It was owing to the introduction of 
mulberry-trees and silkworms that we have now 
such a general diffusion of the mulberry-tree in 
this country. 

In the reign of James I. the Bible was re-trans- 
lated by forty-seven theologians. They commenced 
their work in 1007, and the scriptures were 
published in 1611. Since then there has been no 
authorized alteration. A fourth translation of the 
scriptures was made, because the language of 
Wicliffe'fl Bible was nearly obsolete, and Cover- 
dale's Bible was translated from defective Latin 
copies, which could scarcely be depended upon. 
James had the scriptures translated from the origi- 
nal languages; the Old Testament from Hebrew, 
and the New Testament from Greek — of course, 
with the assistance of the existing translations. 

In the reign of James I. some lioman Catholics 
entered into a plot — called the Gunpowder plot — 
to murder the king as well as all the lords and 
commons, by blowing them up with gunpowder 
when they met to open parliament on the 5th of 
November, 1605. The plot was not carried out, 
in consequence of Lord Monteagle receiving a 
letter the night before the deed was to be perpe- 
trated, advising him to stay at home next night, 
u as God and man concurred to punish the wicked- 
ness of the times." The letter was shown to the 
king, the vaults under the parliament-houses were 
searched, and Guy Fawkes was discovered with a 
dark lantern, making arrangements to set fire to 
thirty-six barrels of gunpowder ! Fawkes was a 
cool, daring, and desperate man ; he and the rest 
of the conspirators were either executed or slain in 
the attempt to take them prisoners. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 257 

In the reign of Charles II. three other plots 
were formed ; the Popish plot, the Meal-tub plot, 
and the Rye-house plot. The Popish plot was 
formed by Roman Catholics to secure the accession 
of James Duke of York. This plot was revealed 
by Titus Oates, who was rewarded by an annual 
pension of £1200. The Meal-tub plot was an 
amusing fabrication concocted by one Dangerfield, 
as a means to extort money by revealing it. It 
was so called from the whole scheme of this man 
being found in a meal-tub, in the house of a woman 
of loose character. The Rye-house plot was enter- 
ed into by several persons of fortune, with a view 
to shoot the king on his way from Newmarket. It 
was unsuccessful, through the house in which the 
king lodged catching fire, which accident obliged 
him to leave eight days earlier than he intended. 
The plot was discovered, and most of the conspira- 
tors put to death. It was called the Rye-house 
plot because the conspirators met at the Rye-house 
farm, near Newmarket, to concert their nefarious 
object. Some portions of the original building yet 
remain. 

James I. was a great trader in titles of nobility. 
His price for a barony was £10,000 ; for the title 
of viscount, £20,000; and for that of an earl, 
£30,000. He also invented the new title of 
baronet, and by it raised £225,000; at the rate of 
£1095 each baronetcy. We can scarcely blame 
James for so doing; nay, we think he acted 
shrewdly in this respect. The king got money, and 
many of the English aristocracy obtained their 
present honours ! James I. it was who first 
styled himself, " His Most Sacred Majesty," and 
called the united kingdom of England and Scot- 
land " Great Britain.'' While this book is passing 



258 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

through the press, the title of the sovereign of 
these realms has been considerably enlarged; for, 
by the proclamation addressed by her majesty to 
the people of India, we perceive that Victoria is 
styled, " By the grace of God Queen of Great 
Britain and Ireland, and of her Colonies and 
Dependencies in Asia, Africa, America, and Austral- 
asia, Defender of the Faith." 

Sir Hugh Middleton, a London goldsmith, who 
lived in the time of the first James, brought the 
new river from Ware, in Herts, to Islington, in 
order to supply London with water. This canal 
is 3 ( J milefl in length, and possesses 43 sluices and 
215 bridges. 

At the commencement of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, merchants and shopkeepers, though grow- 
ing rich, yet still conducted their businesses in 
warehouses which would appear mean and miser- 
able to our present city men, and in shops with 
open fronts, before which the master or one of his 
apprentices constantly paraded, crying — "What 
d'ye lack?" 

The financial system of banking was adopted 
during the commonwealth. Before the civil war 
money was generally deposited in the Mint in 
London Tower ; but, after the war broke out, 
goldsmiths were employed by merchants as their 
bankers, a.d. 1 653. In the reign of William III. 
the funded system was introduced by government 
— that is, the practice of borrowing money for 
government expenses, and levying taxes to pay 
the interest. The money was borrowed of rich 
merchants, who w r ere incorporated into a company, 
by the name of the Bank of England, in 1694. 
This was the commencement of the National 
Debt. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 259 

In the reign of Charles II. the celebrated bill 
of exclusion was passed by the new parliament. 
By this bill, James Duke of York was excluded, 
as a Roman Catholic, from his brother's throne. 
The law then passed is still in force. 

In the year 1665 a dreadful disease broke out, 
which is known in history as the great plague. 
It ravaged the country, and 90,000 persons died 
in London alone. The plague broke out in the 
then filthy suburb of St. Giles. When a house 
was known to be infected it was shut up, and a 
red cross was chalked on the door, with these 
words over it — " Lord have mercy upon us ! " 
Pest-carts went round the city every night, and 
as the carts passed on, the driver cried, u Bring 
out your dead!" and the dead, being thrown 
naked into the carts, were presently shot into a 
great hole instead of graves. Forty thousand 
servants, being dismissed by their employers, 
were turned into the streets ; the Londoners 
would have nothing to do with them, and the 
country people are said to have driven them back 
with pitchforks. 

A year after — the 3rd of September, 1666 — the 
great fire of London broke out at a bakehouse 
near to London Bridge, on or about the spot 
where the monument now stands. The houses 
being built of wood, the roofs covered with pitch, 
the floors strewn with rushes, the streets very 
narrow, and fire-engines not being yet invented, 
the fire spread with great rapidity. Devastation 
and ruin spread on every side ; the people whose 
houses were burnt down lived in the open fields 
about Islington, and were supplied with food by 
the charitable. Six hundred streets, ninety parish 
churches, old St. Paul's cathedral, the custom- 



2 GO MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

house, Guildhall, and four stone bridges, were 
destroyed. Strange to say, in this conflagration 
only six lives were lost ! This fire verified the 
proverb — " Out of evil comes good ; " for the 
city was rebuilt with brick and stone instead of 
wood — the streets were made wider and straighter 
— pitch was no longer used for roof coverings, 
nor straw for floors — and the result was, that the 
plague lias never reappeared. Though we have 
been visited by cholera and various infectious 
diseases, London is now believed to be the most 
healthy city in Europe. 

In the reign of Charles II. the Ilaymarket was 
established in London for the sale of hay and 
straw. In the same reign two acts of parliament 
were passed — the u corporation and test act/' and 
the "habeas corpus act." The first was a law 
which required every man who held office under 
government, to take the sacrament of the Lord's 
supper in " the church of England " at least once 
every year. Its object was to exclude Roman 
Catholics and Dissenters from holding office in 
the state. This law was very properly abolished 
in the reign of George IV., a. d. 1828. The 
" habeas corpus act " most wisely provides, that no 
one shall be sent to prison beyond sea — that the 
body of every prisoner shall be produced on trial 
— that a prisoner shall be tried on the term next 
after his apprehension — and that no one shall be 
tried twice for the same offence. This law was 
passed in 1679, two years after the curious " cor- 
poration and test act/' and still continues in force. 

The British Museum was founded by Sir Hans 
Sloane, who in ] 753 bequeathed to the nation his 
collection of natural and artificial curiosities, and 
his library, consisting of 50,000 volumes of books 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 261 

and manuscripts, on condition of the payment of 
i?20,000 to his heirs. Montague-house, then one 
of the largest mansions in the metropolis, was ap- 
propriated to its reception. The museum has 
since been gradually increased by gifts, bequests, 
and purchases of every species of curiosity — ani- 
mals, vegetables, minerals, sculptures, books, manu- 
scripts, &c. The number of separate articles, 
exclusive of books, is upwards of 20,000, among 
w r hich is the original Magna Charta, and original 
documents connected with it.* 

In the reign of James I., Dr. William Harvey 
of Kent discovered the circulation of the blood — 
a discovery which changed the whole practice of 
medicine. For this great discovery he was re- 
warded by parliament. 

Sir Roger L'Estrange, of Norfolk, published 
the first periodical paper, called "The Public 
Intelligencer," in 1663. On the 4th of February 
1665, was published the first number of "The 
London Gazette," a government newspaper still 
in active existence. 

In the time of George I. coal-gas was brought 
into notice by Dr. Hales of Kent ; but it was not 
applied to purposes of light till the reign of the 
third George. A person by the name of Murdock, 
of Cornwall, first used it for this purpose in his 
own house, and in 1815 several of the London 
streets were lighted by gas. 

In the year 1770 an act was introduced into 
Parliament against hoops, false hair, high heels, 
and matrimony. Its provisions ran thus : — u That 
all women, of whatever age, rank, profession, or 
degree, whether virgins, maids, or widows, that 
shall, from and after such act, impose upon, seduce, 

* See the article on this subject in the Popular Encyclopaedia. 



2G2 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

and betray into matrimony, any of his Majesty's 
male subjects, by the scents, paints, cosmetic 
washes, artificial teeth, false hair, Spanish wool, 
iron stays, hoops, high-heeled shoes, &c, shall 
incur the penalty of the law now in force against 
witchcraft and like misdemeanours, and that the 
marriage, upon conviction, shall stand null and 
void." 

In the time of George III. the standing army 
w r as greatly increased — the use of armour dis- 
pensed with — and the soldiers dressed in a regu- 
lar national uniform, which has been greatly 
modified in character from time to time. 

Smeaton constructed in 1756 the first light- 
house which was able to resist the violence of the 
waves. 

In 1799, Dr. Jenner discovered that the small- 
pox may be prevented by vaccination. He 
observed that milch-cows were often affected with 
an eruption on their udders proceeding from cow- 
pqx ; also that those who milked those cows were 
never affected by the smallpox. Inoculation was 
first tried on criminals with great success. The 
operation is performed by taking a very small 
quantity of ichor from the udder of the cow, and 
inserting it in the human arm. For this valuable 
discovery parliament voted Jenner a large sum 
of money. Smallpox, which was once a fatal 
disease, has, by means of vaccination, been deprived 
of nearly all its terrors, A few years since, par- 
liament passed the compulsory vaccination act ; 
and now, in 1858, a public monument has been set 
up in honour of Jenner, as a great public bene- 
factor. Within the last half century vaccination 
has made the circuit of the world, to the comfort 
and the saving of the lives of myriads ! 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 263 

In 1784, balloons were introduced into England 
by an Italian. 

In the time of George III. James Hargreaves, 
a poor weaver, invented the " spinning jenny " — a 
contrivance whereby several spindles may be 
worked by one person. Soon after, Richard Ark- 
wright invented the 6e twist frame/' to supersede 
the use of finger and thumb in spinning — and 
Crompton invented the H mule," which combines 
the twist-frame and the jenny together. 

About the same time umbrellas were brought 
from India, and once produced a riot amongst 
coachmen, who were afraid they should lose their 
business ! 

Sir William Congreave was the inventor of 
lucifer matches, rockets, &c, and Dr. Gall, the 
German, was the first who started the science of 
phrenology. Both these men lived in the time of 
George IV. 

The first electric telegraph was constructed in 
the year 1837. Steam-boats, now so common, 
were first brought into use on the Clyde in 1812. 
The first iron railway was laid down between 
London and Croydon in 1801 — carriages were 
drawn by locomotive steam-engines at Newcastle 
in ] 824 ; but the first complete railway was opened 
between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. At 
this moment the gigantic railway system is 
almost every where at work. The railways of 
Great Britain have cost upwards of i?800,000,000. 

John Bull, the sportive collective name of the 
English people, was first used by Dean Swift. 
Jonathan, or Brother Jonathan, is applied in the 
same way to the people of the United States. 
The Irish Paddy from Patrick; the Scotch Sawney 
from Saunders, which comes from Alexander — are 



264 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

more particularly applied to individuals than to 
the Irish and Scotch people collectively. Yankee 
also signifies a single American, particularly a 
native of the Eastern states ; whilst Uncle Sam, 
a colloquial and rather low expression derived 
from the initials of United States, is used to 
denote the government of the United States col- 
lectively. John Bull is used by the British them- 
selves to convey the idea of an honest, blunt, but 
in the main good-natured character. With 
foreigners, it is used to express the insular peculi- 
arities and prejudices of the nation, and their 
inability to accommodate themselves to the cir- 
cumstances of foreign countries.* 

In the reign of George I. two famous acts of 
parliament were passed, the " riot act," and an 
act to extend the sessions of parliament from three 
to seven years. 

In the same reign occurred the South Sea 
bubble — a fraudulent scheme devised by Sir John 
Blunt, an English lawyer. The South Sea Com- 
pany proposed to buy up the national debt, and 
to be allowed in return the sole privilege of trading 
in the South Seas. Thousands of persons gladly 
bought shares at more than ten times their ori- 
ginal value, and as a matter of course were reduced 
to beggary. The history of this bubble is one of 
the most remarkable revelations of cupidity, 
avarice, and folly on record ; but it was only one 
of the many swindling schemes practised about 
this time. Bubbles was a most appropriate name 
for them. 

In the time of George II. the old city gates of 
London were taken down, partly because they 

* Popular Encyclopedia— Part VII., p. 254. 



THE ENGLISH NATION* 265 

were in a ruinous condition, and partly that a free 
current of air might keep the streets ventilated. 

After the battle of Culloden, the English were 
barbarously cruel to the Jacobites, four of whom 
were executed in London; these were the last 
persons who suffered the punishment of beheading 
in England. The partisans of James II. were 
called u Jacobites/' from Jacobus, the Latin word 
for James. 

In the year 1784 felons were no longer hanged 
at Tyburn, but at Newgate ; and in 1787 convicts 
were first transported to Botany Bay, in New 
South Wales. The punishment of sending priso- 
ners to the tread-mill was first adopted in 1823. 

In the reign of George II. an alteration was 
made in the calendar — the New Style was intro- 
duced. Julius Caesar made the year to consist of 
365 days and six hours, which was too much by 
eleven minutes. Pope Gregory rectified the mis- 
take. The calendar was eleven days before the sun 
in George's time, and hence eleven days were cut 
out of the month of September. The 3rd of Sep- 
tember was called the 14th, and the year was made 
to begin from the 1st of January, instead of the 
24th of March, as formerly. This occurred in the 
year 1752. The Old Style is sometimes called 
the Julian, from Juliu3 Caesar — and the New 
Style the Gregorian, from Pope Gregory XIII. 

Three orders of knighthood were added to that 
of the Garter during the eighteenth century. 
The order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, instituted 
by Queen Anne in 1703 ; the motto of the order 
is, Nemo me impurie lacessit, (None shall injure me 
with impunity.) The order of the Bath was 
instituted by George I. in 1725 ; the motto of 
which is, Tria juncta in uno, (Three joined in one, 
in allusion to the Trinity.) The order of St. 

s 



266 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Patrick was instituted by George III. in 1783; 
the motto being Quis separabit, (Who shall sepa- 
rate us ?) 

In the reign of George the Third, the Grenville 
Stamp Act was passed, which caused the war 
with America. Grenville said that the Americans 
ought to pay a part of the British taxes, as they 
were protected by the British government, and 
for this reason ordered their newspapers, and so 
forth, to be stamped like those in England. So 
enraged were the colonists at this, that they 
seized and threw three ship loads of tea into the 
sea at Boston, which tea belonged to the English. 
George Washington — a brave and good man — 
was the commander-in-chief of the American 
armies. Battles were fought ; the English defeat- 
ed, and the " United States" declared indepen- 
dent in the year 1783. 

The Bible, Church Missionary, Hibernian, 
Jews', and Tract Societies ; the lioyal Humane 
Society, to protect persons from drowning; the 
National Society, to promote the education of the 
poor ; the Philanthropic, to prevent crime and 
train children ; the Agricultural, Horticultural, 
Geological, Philosophical, and Medical Societies, 
with some others, date their origin from the reign 
of George III. 

The game licence, and the taxes upon windows, 
horses, quack medicines, &c, were first imposed 
in the reign of the third George. 

In 1801 the Irish parliament was united to the 
English, and from that time only one parliament 
has been held in the three kingdoms. This is 
called "The Union." The union caused an 
alteration in the national banner ; since then it has 
borne three crosses — St. George's cross for 
England, St. Andrew's cross for Scotland, and 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 267 

St. Patrick's cross for Ireland ; hence it is called 
" The Union Jack." This flag is called a jack be- 
cause it was so called by the sailors in the reign 
of James I., who signed " Jacques " on the 
national banner. 

Scotland was joined to England on the 1st of 
May, 1717. It is strange to us, knowing the vast 
benefits which have followed the Union, to find 
that it was done through corruption, against the 
will of both nations. In Scotland, the popular 
fury was very great, and threatened to break 
out in riot and bloodshed. The Duke of Hamilton 
demanded, in the name of an insulted nationality, 
if they w r ere to give up all for which their fathers 
had fought, and if the names of Bruce and Wallace 
had no potency with the nation for which they so 
bravely contended, and so heriocally bled ? The 
English foreboded as many and as dire calami- 
ties to England as the Scotch did to Scotland ; 
they said the hungry Scotch w r ould come and 
eat all their substance, take all their trade, and 
ruin their country ! 

To protect shopkeepers, William III. made 
hawkers and pedlars pay an annual tax to govern- 
ment, called " a licence," which is still imposed. 

About the year 1772 a material alteration was 
made in the criminal law of the kingdom. 
Formerly, when a felon refused to plead, he was 
stretched out upon his back at full length, and a 
heavy weight laid upon his breast, which w 7 as 
gradually though slowly increased, till he expired; 
during which operation he was fed with nothing 
but a crust of bread and some dirty water. By 
a bill which was now passed, this barbarous 
practice was abolished, and all felons refusing to 
plead are adjudged to be guilty of the crimes laid 
to their charge. 



268 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

In the rei<m of George IV. was laid out 

Regent's Park, the extent of which is 543 acres. 
Before this king's time, it consisted of meadows, 
sheds for cattle, and mean cottages. St. James's 
Park was only a meadow, through which ran a 
large straight canal, till the reign of this king. 
Mechanics' Institutes, founded by Dr. George 
Birkbeck in 1821; the equalisation, by law, of 
weights and measures ; the Zoological Gardens, 
the Colosseum, and many other improvements and 
inventions, were made in the reign of the fourth 
George. 

Free trade was introduced by William Iluskis- 
son in 1823. This gentleman was killed at the 
opening of the Manchester and Liverpool Rail- 
way, by the wheel of a locomotive crushing his 
legs. 

The most happy event in the reign of 
William IV. was the emancipation of the colonial 
slaves, for which the British government paid the 
enormous sum of £20,000,000. This important 
event occurred in 1834. There was a noble law 
passed respecting slaves in the reign of George III., 
which was, that if a man came to England as a 
slave, the moment he landed on British ground 
he should be considered a free man ! 

The new marriage act was passed in the reign 
of William IV., the object of which was to allow 
marriages to be effected in dissenting chapels, or 
before guardians, without any religious ceremony 
whatever, as well as in u the church of England,'' 
according to ancient custom. 

Joseph Lancaster, who devised the u Lancastrian 
system," whereby the poor are educated by mutual 
instruction — and Dr. Bell, the projector of national 
schools, lived in the reign of William IV. 

In 1836 the tithes were " commuted " — that is, 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 269 

landlords were to pay clergymen of the " establish- 
ed church" a certain sum of money instead of 
tithes " in kind," as of old. 

The Thames tunnel — a subterranean passage 
under the Thames, instead of a bridge over it — 
was commenced in 1825. Brunei undertook the 
mighty task, and completed it in 1843, at a total 
cost of i?630,000 — two-thirds less than London 
bridge ! Its length is 400 yards. Foot-passengers 
enter by circular shafts with handsome staircases. 
It was intended that carriages should enter the 
tunnel through an immense spiral road, winding 
twice round a circular excavation of fifty-seven 
feet deep, and two hundred feet in diameter, but 
this part of the scheme has never been carried 
out. The double archways are each fifteen feet 
high, and each wide enough for a carriage-way 
and foot-path. The tunnel was opened throughout 
for foot passengers on the 25th of March, 1843. 

In 1846 the corn-laws were entirely repealed, 
so that corn may now be exported or imported 
free of government duty. 

The reign of our beloved queen is illustrious for 
the " Great Exhibition of all Nations," which took 
place in the year 1851. The exhibition was held 
in a building in Hyde Park, which covered eighteen 
acres, and enclosed three large trees ! This im- 
mense building, made entirely of glass, iron, and 
wood, was supported by hollow pillars ; the whole 
length of the nave was equal to the date of the 
year — i. e., 1851 feet — the centre breadth of the 
building was 456 feet, and the height in the central 
arch was 64 feet. In the building there were used, 
400 tons of glass, 300 iron pillars, and 34 miles of 
gutters to carry off the water. The length of 
walks in the aisles, galleries, transept, and passages, 
was 20 miles! Joseph Paxton, gardener to the 



270 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

Duke of Devonshire, designed the building; and 
Messrs. Fox and Henderson, of Manchester, built 
it for £270,000. It was opened on the May-day 
of the year 1851, and for 140 days was crowded 
with visiters from all the nations of the earth. The 
total value of the property contained within the 
building exceeded £85,000,000, and the number 
of persons who visited the exhibition was about 
three and a half millions. 

The sale of milk and mackerel is now legalized 
by Parliament. Timbs, in his " Things not Gene- 
rally Known," says — " By a statute of the 13th of 
Car. II., carrying further than had been done 
under any of our sovereigns since the days of the 
Heptarchy the prohibition of labour or business upon 
the Lord's day, exception is made ' for the crying 
or selling of milk before nine of the clock in the 
morning, or after four of the clock in the afternoon.' 
And by a law of 10 Will. III., mackerel are per- 
mitted to be sold on Sundays before or after 
divine service ; a provision afterwards recognised 
by the 2nd of Geo. III., also in favour of fish-carts 
travelling on Sundays." 

Formerly dogs were taught to turn the spit for 
roasting meat, by continual exercise in a kind of 
tread-wheel — hence that kind of dog was called 
" the turnspit." Butler, in his Hudibras, says : — 

u But as a dog that turns the spit 
Bestirs himself, and plies his feet 
To climb the wheel, but all in vain, — 
His own weight brings him back again, 
And still he's in the selfsame place 
Where, at his setting out, he was." 

Anecdotes, well authenticated, are related of 
one of a couple of turnspit dogs refusing to work 
the spit because it was not his turn ! Mechanical 
contrivances have, in comparatively modern times, 
superseded the employment of the turnspit dog. 



THE ENQOSH NATION. 271 

At the commencement of this era, the greater 
part of the people were without education, without 
political rights, and consequently without that 
intelligence and union which can alone ensure the 
fair reward of labour. As is generally the case, 
sensuality and barbarity went hand in hand. 
William Howitt tells us that the sanguinary ven- 
geance which Charles took on the leaders of the 
Commonwealth, immediately on his restoration — 
the savage persecutions for religion in England 
and Scotland — the terrible use of the iron boot 
and the thumbscrew in the latter country — the 
bloody campaign of Jeffreys in England — the sale 
of convicts, and the kidnapping of innocent people 
for the plantations — public whippings, pillory ings, 
brandings, and tongue-borings, as in the case of 
James Naylor — all designate a brutal and unfeel- 
ing tone of society. Macaulay quotes from writers 
of the age many other revolting traits of this 
stamp. He says — u Whigs were disposed to 
murmur because Stafford was suffered to die with- 
out seeing his bowels burned before his face. 
Tories reviled and insulted Russell as his coach 
passed from the Tower to the scaffold in Lincoln's 
Inn Fields. As little mercy was shown by the 
populace to sufferers of a humbler rank. If an 
offender was put into the pillory, it was well if he 
escaped with life, from the shower of brickbats and 
paving-stones. If he were tied to the cart's tail, 
the crowd pressed round him, imploring the 
hangman to give it the fellow well, and make him 
howl. Gentlemen arranged parties of pleasure to 
Bridewell on court days, for the purpose of seeing 
the wretched women that beat hemp there, whip- 
ped. A man pressed to death for refusing to 
plead, or burned for coining, excited less sympa- 
thy than is now felt for a galled horse, or an over 



272 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

driven ox. Fights, compared with which a box- 
ing-match is a refined and humane spectacle, were 
the favourite diversions of a large part of the town. 
Multitudes assembled to see gladiators hack each 
other to pieces with deadly weapons, and shouted 
with delight when one of the combatants lost a 
finger or an eye. The prisons were like hells on 
earth — seminaries of every crime and every die- 
ease. At the assizes, the lean and yellow culprits 
brought with them from their cells to the dock 
an atmosphere of stench and pestilence, w r hich 
sometimes avenged them signally on the bench, 
bar, and jury. But on all this misery, society 
looked with profound indifference /' 

The rate of wages for agricultural labourers, 
wood-cutters, shepherds, and the like, differed in 
different parts of the country ; but in the best it 
did not average more than four shillings a-week 
with food, or six shillings without. In Essex, in 
1661, the magistrates fixed the rate of w r ages from 
March to September, at eightpence a-day with 
food, and one shilling and twopence without ; and 
for the other months, sixpence with food, and a 
shilling without. Of course, women had still 
smaller wages. An act of Elizabeth empowered 
magistrates to punish whoever gave more or less, 
and the labourer who received more or less. 

The state of the poor was rendered infinitely 
worse two years after the restoration of Charles II. 
than it had been, by an act which was passed to 
prevent poor people settling in any other place 
than the one where they had previously lived. 
This was the origin of the law of settlement, 
which so long harassed the pot>r, and wasted the 
parochial funds in litigation. It was not till 1795 
— in fact, till the reign of George III. — that this 
oppressive law was ameliorated; allowing people to 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 273 

change their place of residence when they saw a 
better chance of employment elsewhere, so long as 
they did not come upon the parish. 

The moral condition of the people on the acces- 
sion of Charles the First was deplorable. The 
utter neglect of education left the bulk of the 
populace ignorant and depraved, and the long 
peace which the reigns of the virgin queen and 
James I. maintained, had so greatly augmented 
the wealth and prosperity of the nation, that the 
insolence of illiterate degradation added to the 
public exhibition of rudeness, debauchery, and 
immorality. In one respect, however, the people 
had become much enlightened — they had learned 
their political rights ! From the time that Henry 
VIII. set the scriptures free in good plain Eng- 
lish, the spirit of independence daily gained ground. 
That spirit often troubled Elizabeth, terrified her 
successor, and brought his son to the block. The 
nation demanded freedom of worship, and Charles 
I. sought for uniformity, and, as Milton has it, 
" would have his conscience an incommunicable 
but an universal conscience — the whole kingdom's 
conscience. Thus, what he seems to fear lest we 
should ravish from him, is our chief complaint 
that he obtruded upon us. We never forced him 
to part with his conscience ; but it was he that 
would have forced us to part with ours/' * The 
nation desired an increase of personal liberty, a 
more distinct line to be drawn between the royal 
prerogative and the power of the commons, and 
guarantee that the ancient laws of the realm 
should be preserved. Charles strove to make his 
will the supreme law, and the liberty of his people 
to depend entirely on his graciousness. Between 
two such opposing principles war was an inevitable 

* Milton — Iconoclastes. 



274 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

consequence.* To the student of history that 
"consequence" is well known — the people passed 
the following resolutions : — 

1. That the people, under God, are the origin 
of all just power. 

2. That the Commons of England, assembled 
in parliament, being chosen by and representing 
the people, have the supreme authority in this 
nation. 

3. That whatever is enacted and declared law 
by the Commons of England, assembled in parlia- 
ment, hath the form of law ; and all the people of 
this nation are included thereby, although the 
consent of the king and house of peers be not had 
thereunto. 

Charles was tried, found guilty, and condemned, 
as a " tyrant, traitor, murderer, and a public and 
implacable enemy of the Commonwealth," to be 
beheaded. The execution took place in front of 
Whitehall, on the 30th of January, 1649. On 
the pedestal of the king's statue was inscribed, 
"Exit Tyrannus, Regum Ultimus!" — The tyrant 
is gone, the last of the kings. 

We might say much about that mighty man 
Cromwell, but space compels us to be very brief. 
Notwithstanding the amount of pauperism, the 
nation was never in a more prosperous condition 
than during the government of Oliver Cromwell. 
Whatever constitutional principles u were violated 
in the struggle which resulted in the Common- 
wealth, whatever miseries were inflicted during its 
violent warfare, and however brief was the period 
of its existence, the advantages to us and to all 
mankind were incalculable in their amount, and 
eternal in their nature. By it the royal, myste- 
rious, indefatigable, and protean power called pre- 

* Langford — English Democracy, p. 25. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 275 

rogative, a law above all law, was struck down, 
and, if not destroyed, made subject to parliament ; 
and the powers and jurisdiction of parliament, the 
great legislative and judicial authority, placed on 
a clear and immovable basis. Since then kings 
have ceased to be a terror ; no man is in peril of 
being dragged from his home, to be tortured and 
robbed in Star-chambers and High Commission 
Courts, at the pleasure of the prince and his 
parasites ; and if we are ill-governed, we have only 
ourselves to thank for it. Such is the debt of 
everlasting gratitude that we owe to the great 
men of the Commonwealth, and to none more than 
to Oliver Cromwell, the dictator." * We have 
only space here for one paragraph on Cromwell's 
foreign rule ; it is from Walter Savage Landor. 
He says the shadow of Cromwell's name overawed 
the most confident and haughty. He intimidated 
Holland ; he humiliated Spain ; and he twisted 
the supple Mazarin, the ruler of France, about his 
finger. All those nations had then attained the 
summit of their prosperity ; all were unfriendly to 
the rising power of England ; all trembled at the 
authority of that single man, who coerced at once 
her aristocracy, her priesthood, and her factions. 
No agent of equal potency and equal moderation 
had appeared on earth before. 

The reign of Charles II. was a disastrous one. 
During his weak rule all the vigour of the English 
seemed lost ; truly did they fall on evil times, for 
the doctrines of passive obedience, of non-resistance 
to kings, of divine right and irresponsibility, were 
dominant, and the English church well merited to 
be called as " abusive, and much more servile, than 
the Eoman church had ever been," — eglise aussi 

* William Howitt, 



276 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

abusive que l'ait jamais ete l'eglise romaine, et 
beaucoup plus servile.* 

James II. was a stubborn, narrow-minded, 
bigoted, and revengeful tool of holy "mother 
church ; " his aims and hopes were the conversion 
of England to the religion of Rome. Priests were 
his guides, and 

" Cursed is the crown that must the cowl obey."' f 

At court he established a father confessor, and 
once asked Ronguilla, the Spanish ambassador, 
this amusing question — u Is it not the custom in 
Spain for the king to consult his confessor ? " 
Ronguilla replied — "Yes, and that is why our 
affairs succeed so ill." J Of course, such a king as 
James II. was not the man to rule the English, 
and the end of his tyranny was his flight, and the 
establishment of William III. on the throne of 
England. u By the triumph of the Orange revo- 
lution, despotism was for ever struck from its 
pedestal." § 

One of God's eternal laws is, that nothing 
shall stand still — a nation is always changing 
either for better or for worse — a people either 
marches on towards perfection, or retrogrades. 
Those who have carefully read and studied the 
history of England and its inhabitants, well know 
what great, grand, and noble strides the Britons 
have taken towards perfection. Mr. Langford, a 
gentleman entitled to much respect, in speaking 
of the condition of the people from the year 1688 
to the French Revolution, tells us that "the 
popular ignorance was dense, and, with but few 
honourable exceptions, the education of the people 

* Guizofc — Histoire de la Civilization, p. 228. 

f Wordsworth. 

t Hume— Hist of England, Vol. L, p. 84. 

§ Wade— Hist, of the Middle and Working Classes, p. 134. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 277 

was considered a foolish, if not a wicked thing. 
To have proposed it would have been deemed 
Quixotic beyond measure ; nor was it till the close 
of the war with France, in 1816, that any attempts 
were made to remove the national ignorance, or 
improve the educational institutions of the country. 
The English laws were also of the most draconic 
nature: death was the one punishment for all 
crimes. If a boy stole five shillings from the pocket 
of any one who would prosecute, the crime was 
capital, the punishment death. Horse-stealing, 
sheep-stealing, burglary, and a host of other 
offences were all punished with death." 

Harriet Martineau, in the introduction to her 
"History of the Peace," p. 17, says— " The 
records of assizes, in the Chronicle of Events, are 
sickening to read. The vast and absurd variety 
of offences, for which men and women were sen- 
tenced to death by the score, out of which one- 
third, or so, were really hanged, gives now an 
impression of devilish levity in dealing with 
human life ; and must at the time have precluded 
all rational conception, on the part of many, as to 
what law is — to say nothing of that attachment to 
it, and reverence and trust in regard to it, which 
are indispensable to the true citizen temper." 

Since the year 1815, the nation has advanced 
in the right direction more rapidly and securely 
than ever it did since the Roman set foot in this 
island. Reform after reform has been won by the 
people from an opposing legislature. In 1817, 
Mr. Canning said — u I deny the assumption that 
the House of Commons, as it stands, is not, to all 
practical purposes, an adequate representation of 
the people — I deny that it requires any amend- 
ment."* And yet this was the House of Commons 

♦ Hansard -Vol. XXV., p. 130. 



278 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

that, in 1793, " the Society of the Friends of the 
People, in their petition, offered, among other 
things, to prove that peers and the treasury 
actually nominated ninety-seven members, and 
procured by influence the return of seventy more, 
making together one hundred and sixty-seven — 
that ninety-one individual commoners in the 
country procured the election of one hundred and 
thirty-nine — and that one hundred and sixty 
individuals absolutely returned three hundred and 
six members, a majority of the entire House of 
Commons/' * On the 7th of June, 1832, the people 
obtained the Reform Bill. 

As a picture of pulpit manners in the reign of 
"the finest gentleman in Europe/' we give the 
following from Cyrus Kedding's u Fifty Years' 
Recollections," descriptive of Dr. Parr at church: 
— "Parr drew my attention very awkwardly on 
entering his church one Sunday morning while he 
was reading the lessons ; he stopped, and fixed the 
eyes of the whole congregation upon myself and a 
lady, who was my companion, by saying to his 
servant, ; Sam, show that lady and gentleman 
into my pew.' In reading the lessons, when he 
came to a wrong translation in a passage, he 
would stop and say, ' This is not correctly trans- 
lated, it should have been rendered so and so;' 
or, ' This passage has a different meaning from the 
original : I would not have you in error about 
any thing, my good parishioners.' In reading the 
proclamation against vice and immorality, he 
began — it was about the time of the Queen Caro- 
line's prosecution — 'My beloved brethren, you 
must not be deceived in any thing. I am going 
to read the king's proclamation against vice and 

* Roebuck— History of the Whig Ministry— Vol. I., p. 196. 



THE ENGLISH NATION. 279 

immorality. You will take notice that it is not 
issued in his majesty's private character, but in 
that of a ruler and king — it has nothing to do 
with his majesty as a private individual."' 

Every measure, says Mr. Langford, <( which 
tends to increase the communication of the people 
with each other, and break down the restrictions 
of class legislation, by opening to all what was 
once but the privilege of the few, is another step in 
popular progress, and an aid to future advance- 
ment." Such was the postal reform of Mr. 
Rowland Hill — the Penny Postage Bill became 
law on the 17th of August, 1839, and was first 
put into operation on the 10th of January, 1840. 

It would require a large volume merely to 
enumerate the numerous achievements of the 
people during this reign — the glorious reign of our 
beloved Queen Victoria ! This brief period of 
history has witnessed a great progress in education; 
rapid advance is being made to a wise, liberal, and 
free system of national education. Sectarianism 
throws many obstacles in the way; but ere long 
there will be a grand and noble change. The best 
of our writers now write for the people, and 
according to their merits receive popular applause. 
To this period of our history belongs the origin of 
savings banks, of insurance and provident societies, 
the formation of temperance, freehold land, and 
building societies; the commencement of free 
libraries and museums; the opening of public 
parks, arboretums, baths, and wash-houses; the 
establishment of schools of design, mechanics' 
institutions, collections of works of art, and 
general attention to the refinements and amenities 
of life. Prison discipline has been improved ; the 
treatment of lunatics and other unfortunate mem- 



280 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF 

bers of the community humanized, and inspired 
by the spirit of love and gentleness.* 

So vast and certain is the progress of the 
nation, that the people are daily taking some link 
from the chain which bound them, and are daily 
walking this fair earth with freer, firmer step, 
more upright form, and sparkling eye — sparkling 
with the consciousness of manhood, freedom, and 
power. The birthright of every man is "freedom 
to do all that he wills, provided he infringes not 
the equal freedom of any other man." •}• 

Tennyson has truly said of England — 

" It is the land that freemen till, 

That sober-suited Freedom chose, 

A laud where, gfart with friends or foes, 

A man may speak the thing he will ; 

A land of settled government, 
A land of just and old renown, 
Where Freedom broadens slowly down 

From precedent to precedent." 

And Wordsworth of English folk — 

u We must be free or die, who speak the tongue 
That Shakspeare spake; the faith and morals hold 

Which Milton held. — In every thing we are sprung 
Of earth's best blood, have title* manifold." 

* Langford— English Democracy, Ch. VI. 

t Herbert Spencer— Social Statics, Ch. IV., sec. 1, p. 102. 



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